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You can also find out about how to make a donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. **Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** **eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** *****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** Title: A Complete Grammar of Esperanto Author: Ivy Kellerman Release Date: March, 2005 [EBook #7787] [Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] [This file was first posted on May 25, 2003] [Date last updated: November 13, 2004] Edition: 10 Language: English Character set encoding: ASCII *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO *** Produced by William W. Patterson, Carlo Traverso, Charles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. We thank the Case Western Reserve University Library Preservation Department that has given us the image files with which the present e-book has been prepared. TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: The Esperanto alphabet contains 28 characters. These are the characters of English, but with "q", "w", "x", and "y" removed, and six diacritical letters added. The diacritical letters are "c", "g", "h", "j" and "s" with circumflexes (or "hats", as Esperantists fondly call them), and "u" with a breve. Zamenhof himself suggested that where the diacritical letters caused difficulty, one could instead use "ch", "gh", "hh", "jh", "sh" and "u". A plain ASCII file is one such place; there are no ASCII codes for Esperanto's special letters. However, there are two problems with Zamenhof's "h-method". There is no difference between "u" and "u" with a breve, and there is no way to determine (without prior knowledge of the word(s) involved, and sometimes a bit of context) whether an "h" following one of those other five letters is really the second half of a diacritical pair, or just an "h" that happened to find itself next to one of them. Consequently other, unambiguous, methods have been used over the years. One is the "x-method", which uses the digraphs "cx", "gx", "hx", "jx", "sx" and "ux" to represent the special letters. There is no ambiguity because the letter "x" is not an Esperanto letter, and each diacritical letter has a unique transliteration. The "h" method used in this Project Gutenberg e-text. A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE WITH GRADED EXERCISES FOR READING AND TRANSLATION TOGETHER WITH FULL VOCABULARIES BY IVY KELLERMAN, A.M., Ph.D. MEMBER OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE AND CHAIRMAN OF EXAMINATIONS FOR THE ESPERANTO ASSOCIATION OF NORTH AMERICA, MEMBER OF THE INTERNATIONAL "LINGVA KOMITATO" * * * * * TO DR. L. L. ZAMENHOF THE AUTHOR OF ESPERANTO * * * * * PREFACE. This volume has been prepared to meet a twofold need. An adequate presentation of the International Language has become an imperative necessity. Such presentation, including full and accurate grammatical explanations, suitably graded reading lessons, and similarly graded material for translation from English, has not heretofore been accessible within the compass of a single volume, or in fact within the compass of any two or three volumes. The combination of grammar and reader here offered is therefore unique. It is to furnish not merely an introduction to Esperanto, or a superficial acquaintance with it, but a genuine understanding of the language and mastery of its use without recourse to additional textbooks, readers, etc. In other words, this one volume affords as complete a knowledge of Esperanto as several years' study of a grammar and various readers will accomplish for any national language. Inflection, word-formation and syntax are presented clearly and concisely, yet with a degree of completeness and in a systematic order that constitute a new feature. Other points worthy of note are the following: The reasons for syntactical usages are given, instead of mere statements that such usages exist. For example, clauses of purpose and of result are really explained, instead of being dismissed with the unsatisfactory remark that "the imperative follows 'por ke,'" or the "use of 'tiel ... ke' and 'tia ... ke' must be distinguished from that of 'tiel ... kiel' and 'tia ... kia,'" etc., with but little intimation of when and why "por ke", "tiel ... ke" and "tia ... ke" are likely to occur. Affixes are not mentioned until some familiarity with the general character of the language is assured, as well as the possession of a fair vocabulary. They are introduced gradually, with adequate explanation and illustration. Of importance in connection with word-formation is an element distinctly new--the explanation and classification of compound words. Such words, like affixes, are withheld until the use of simple words is familiar. Another new feature is the gradual introduction of correlative words in their logical order, and in their proper grammatical categories, before they are called "correlatives," or tabulated. The tabulation finally presented is a real classification, with regard to the meaning and grammatical character of the words, not merely an arbitrary alphabetical arrangement. The use of primary adverbs precedes the explanation of adverb derivation; prepositions, especially "de", "da", "je", etc., receive careful attention, also the verb system, and the differentiation of words whose English equivalents are ambiguous. A general characteristic of obvious advantage is that almost without exception new forms and constructions are illustrated by means of words or roots already familiar. Likewise, the new words or roots of each lesson recur at least once in the next lesson, and usually in some lesson thereafter as well. Each reading exercise gives not only a thorough application of the grammatical principles of the lesson, but a review of those in the preceding lesson, and no use is made of words or constructions not yet explained. The comparative ease of the language, and the lack of necessity for reciting paradigms, permit the reading exercises to be long enough for the student to feel that he has really mastered something. These exercises are further unique, in that each after the fifth is a coherent narrative, and nearly every one is a story of genuine interest in itself. These stories, if bound separately, would alone constitute a reader equivalent to those used in first and second year work in national languages. (For list of titles, see Table of Contents.) The second element of the twofold need which this volume meets is the necessity for a presentation of Esperanto, not as a thing apart, but in that form which will make it most serviceable as an introduction to national tongues. A stepping-stone to both ancient and modern languages, Esperanto may render invaluable aid, and pave the way for surmounting the many difficulties confronting both student and teacher. Through Esperanto, the labor in the acquirement of these languages may be reduced in the same proportion in which the pleasure and thoroughness of such acquirement are increased. For this reason, the grammatical constructions of Esperanto are here explained as consistently as possible in accordance with the usage of national languages, especially those in the school curriculum, and precise names are assigned to them. Such matters as "contrary to fact conditions", "indirect quotations", "clauses of purpose" and "of result", "accusatives of time" and "measure", "expressions of separation", "reference", etc., thus become familiar to the student, long before he meets them in the more difficult garb of a national tongue, whose exceptions seem to outnumber its rules, and whose idioms prove more puzzling than its exceptions, unless approached by the smooth and gradual ascent of the International Language, Esperanto. Ivy Kellerman. Washington, D. C., August 3, 1910. * * * * * TABLE OF CONTENTS. LESSON I. Alphabet.--Vowels.--Consonants.--Names of the Letters.-- Diphthongs.--Combinations of Consonants.--Syllables.--Accent. II. Nouns.--The Article.--Adjectives.--Attributive Adjectives.-- Present Tense of the Verb III. The Plural Number.--Predicate Adjective and Noun IV. Transitive Verbs.--The Accusative Case.--The Conjunction "Kaj".--The Negative "Ne". V. The Complementary Infinitive.--Interrogation.--The Conjunction "Nek". VI. Personal Pronouns.--Agreement with Pronouns.--Conjugation of the Verb. VII. The Past Tense.--Prepositions.--Accusative Case of Personal Pronouns. VIII. Reflexive Pronouns.--Reflexive Verbs. IX. Limitation of the Third Personal Pronoun.--Possessive Adjectives.--Pronominal Use of Possessive Adjectives.--"La Kato kaj la Pasero". X. The Accusative of Direction.--The Article for the Possessive Adjective.--Apposition.--"La Arabo kaj la Kamelo". XI. Possessive Case of Nouns.--Impersonal Verbs.--Verbs Preceding their Subjects.--Coordinating Conjunctions.--"La Arabo en la Dezerto". XII. Indirect Statements.--The Indefinite Personal Pronoun "Oni".--The Future Tense.--"La Ventoflago". XIII. The Demonstrative "Pronoun Tiu".--Tenses in Indirect Quotations.--Formation of Feminine Nouns.--"En la Parko". XIV. The Demonstrative Pronoun "Chi tiu".--Possessive Form of the Demonstrative Pronoun.--The Suffix "-Il-".--The Expression of Means or Instrumentality.--"La Mangho". XV. The Demonstrative Adjective.--Adverbs Defined and Classified.--Formation of Opposites.--"La Ruza Juna Viro". XVI. The Demonstrative Adverb of Place.--Accompaniment.--The Adverb "For".--The Meaning of "Povi".--"Malamikoj en la Dezerto". XVII. The Demonstrative Temporal Adverb.--Comparison of Adjectives.--Manner and Characteristic.--"Diri", "Paroli" and "Rakonti".--"Frederiko Granda kaj la Juna Servisto". XVIII. The Demonstrative Adverb of Motive or Reason.--Derivation of Adverbs.--Comparison of Words Expressing Quantity.-- Comparisons Containing "Ol".--Causal Clauses.--"Pri la Sezonoj". XIX. "Ju" and "Des" in Comparisons.--The Preposition "Inter".-- The Preposition "Pro".--Prepositions with Adverbs and Other Prepositions.--"La Autuno kaj la Vintro". XX. The Demonstrative Adverb of Manner and Degree.--Prepositions Expressing Time-Relations.--"En Septembro". XXI. The Accusative of Time.--Adverbs and the Accusative of Time.--The Preposition "Por".--"La Sezonoj kaj la Mondo". XXII. Clauses Expressing Duration of Time.--Clauses Expressing Anticipation.--The Infinitive with "Anstatau", "Por", "Antau ol".--The Expression of a Part of the Whole.-- "Diogeno kaj Aleksandro Granda". XXIII. Adverbs Expressing a Part of the Whole.--The Demonstrative Adverb of Quantity.--Result Clauses.--"En la Butiko". XXIV. The Interrogative Pronoun.--The Present Active Participle.--Compound Tenses.--The Progressive Present Tense.--The Suffix "-Ej-".--"En Nia Domo". XXV. The Interrogative Adjective.--The Imperfect Tense.-- Salutations and Exclamations.--Word Formation.--"Koni" and "Scii".--"La Nepo Vizitas la Avinon". XXVI. The Interrogative Adverb of Place.--The Past Active Participle.--Adverb Derivation from Prepositions.--Adverbs Expressing Direction of Motion.--The Suffix "-Eg-".--"La Pluvego". XXVII. The Interrogative Temporal Adverb.--The Perfect Tense.--The Preposition "Che".--The Suffix "-Ar-".--"Tempo" and "Fojo".-- The Orthography of Proper Names.--"Roberto Bruce kaj la Araneo". XXVIII. The Interrogative Adverb of Motive or Reason.-- The Infinitive as Subject.--Present Action with Past Inception.--The Suffix "-Ul-".--"Loghi" and "Vivi".--"Pri la Avo kaj la Avino". XXIX. The Interrogative Adverb of Manner and Degree.--The Pluperfect Tense.--Cardinal Numbers.--The Accusative of Measure.--"Nia Familio". XXX. The Interrogative Adverb of Quantity.--Modifiers of Impersonally Used Verbs.--Formation of Cardinal Numerals.--The Suffix "-An-".--"Leciono Pri Aritmetiko". XXXI. The Relative Pronoun.--The Future Perfect Tense.--Ordinal Numerals.--"Alfredo Granda kaj la Libro". XXXII. "Kia" as a Relative Adjective.--"Kie" as a Relative Adverb.--The Future Active Participle.--The Periphrastic Future Tenses.--The Suffix "-Ind-".--"Alfredo Granda kaj la Kukoj". XXXIII. "Kiam" as a Relative Adverb.--"Kiel" as a Relative Adverb.--Numeral Nouns and Adverbs.--Word Derivation from Prepositions.--"La Invito". XXXIV. Prepositions as Prefixes.--The Suffix "-Ebl-".--Expression of the Highest Degree Possible.--Titles and Terms of Address.--"Che la Festo". XXXV. "Kiom" as a Relative Adverb.--The Present Passive Participle.--Fractions.--Descriptive Compounds.--"La Hhinoj". XXXVI. The Present Passive Tense.--The Use of "De" to Express Agency.--The General Meaning of "De".--Word Derivation from Primary Adverbs.--The Suffix "-Ist-".--"Antikva Respubliko". XXXVII. The Distributive Pronoun.--The Preposition "Po".-- Dependent Compounds.--"La Chapelo sur la Stango". XXXVIII. The Distributive Adjective.--The Imperfect Passive Tense.-- Compound Tenses of Impersonal Verbs.--Reciprocal Expressions.--The Suffix "-Uj-".--"Vilhelmo Tell kaj la Pomo". XXXIX. The Distributive Adverb of Place.--The Future Passive Tense.--Possessive Compounds.--The Time of Day.--The Suffix "-Obl-".--"En la Stacidomo". XL. The Distributive Temporal Adverb.--The Distributive Adverb "Chial".--The Past Passive Participle.--The Perfect Passive Tense.--The Preposition "Lau".--The Suffix "-Em-".--"La Perdita Infano". XLI. The Distributive Adverb "Chiel".--The Distributive Adverb "Chiom".--The Pluperfect Passive Tense.--The Future Perfect Passive Tense.--The Expression of Material.--The Suffix "-Et-".--"La Donaco". XLII. The Future Passive Participle.--The Passive Periphrastic Future Tenses.--The Generic Article.--The Suffix "-Ec-".--"Sur la Vaporshipo". XLIII. The Indefinite Pronoun.--Participial Nouns.--The Prefix "Ek-".--The Suffix "-Id-".--"La Nesto sur la Tendo". XLIV. The Indefinite Adjective.--The Indefinite Adverb of Place.-- Predicate Nominatives.--"La Chevalo kaj la Sonorilo". XLV. The Indefinite Temporal Adverb.--The Indefinite Adverb "Ial".--Causative Verbs.--Emphasis by Means of "Ja".-- "Che la Malnova Ponto". XLVI. The Indefinite Adverb "Iel".--The Indefinite Adverb "Iom".-- The Suffix "-Ad-".--The Use of "Mem".--"Arhhimedo kaj la Kronoj". XLVII. The Negative Pronoun.--The Adverbial Participle.--The Prefix "Re-".--"La Filozofo Arhhimedo". XLVIII. The Negative Adjective.--The Negative Adverb of Place.--The Negative Temporal Adverb.--The Suffix "-Ajh-".--The Adverb "Jen".--"Du Artkonkursoj". XLIX. The Negative Adverbs "Nenial", "Neniel", "Neniom".--The Suffix "-Igh-".--"La Krepusko". L. The Pronouns ending in "-O".--Correlative Words.--The Use of "Ajn".--The Suffix "-Ing-".--"La Gordia Ligajho". LI. The Pronoun "Ambau".--Formations with "-Ig-" and "-Igh-".-- Factual Conditions.--"La Monahhoj kaj la Azeno". LII. The Conditional Mood.--Compound Tenses of the Conditional Mood.--Less Vivid Conditions.--Independent Use of the Conditional Mood.--The Prefix "Dis-".--"Pri la Gravitado". LIII. Conditions Contrary to Fact.--The Verb "Devi".--The Preposition "Sen".--"La Filozofo Sokrato". LIV. Summary of Conditions.--Clauses of Imaginative Comparison.--The Use of "Al" to Express Reference.--The Suffix "-Estr-".--"La Ostracismo de Aristejdo". LV. The Imperative Mood.--Resolve and Exhortation.--Commands and Prohibitions.--Less Peremptory Uses of the Imperative.--The Use of "Moshto".--"La Glavo de Damoklo". LVI. The Imperative in Subordinate Clauses.--The Preposition "Je".--The Suffix "-Op-".--"La Marshado de la Dekmil Grekoj". LVII. Clauses Expressing Purpose.--Further Uses of the Accusative.--Synopsis of the Conjugation of the Verb.--The Suffix "-Um-".--"La Reirado de la Dekmilo". LVIII. Permission and Possibility.--The Prefix "Ge-".--The Suffix "-Ach-".--Interjections.--"Aleksandro Granda". LIX. The Position of Unemphatic Pronouns.--Some Intransitive Verbs.--The Suffix "-Er-".--The Prefixes "Bo-" and "Duon-".--Correspondence.--"Kelkaj Leteroj". LX. Some Transitive Verbs.--Elision.--The Prefix "Eks-".--The Prefix "Pra-".--The Suffixes "-Chj-" and "-Nj-".--Weights and Measures.--The International Money System.--Abbreviations.-- "Pri La Kamero". ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY. INDEX. * * * * * A COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO. * * * * * LESSON I. ALPHABET. 1. The Esperanto alphabet contains the following letters: a, b, c, ch, d, e, f, g, gh, h, hh, i, j, jh, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, sh, t, u, u, v, z. VOWELS. 2. The vowels of the alphabet are pronounced as follows: "a" as in "far". "e" as in "fiance", like "a" in "fate". [Footnote: This "long a" sound in English frequently ends with a vanish,--a brief terminal sound of "short i" which makes the vowel slightly diphthongal, as in "day", "aye". Such a vanish must not be given to any of the Esperanto vowels.] "i" as in "machine". "o" as in "toll", "for". "u" as in "rude", "rural". CONSONANTS. 3. The consonants "b", "d", "f", "h", "k", "l", "m", "n", "p", "t", "v", "z", are pronounced as in English, and the remaining eleven as follows: "c" like "ts" in "hats", "tsetse". "ch" like "ch" in "chin", "much". "g" like "g" in "go", "big". "gh" like "g" in "gem", "j" in "jar". "hh" is produced by expelling the breath forcibly, with the throat only partially open. [Footnote: As in pronouncing German and Scotch "ch", Spanish "j", Irish "gh", Russian "x", Classical Greek Greek: "chi" etc. There are only a few words containing this consonant.] "j" like "y" in "yes", "beyond". "jh" like "z" in "azure", "s" in "visual". "r" is slightly trilled or rolled. "s" like "s" in "see", "basis". "sh" like "sh" in "shine", "rash", "ch" in machine". "u" like "w" or consonantal "u". See Diphthongs, 5. NAMES OF THE LETTERS. 4. The vowels are named by their sounds, as given in (2). The names of the consonants are "bo", "co", "cho", "do", "fo", "go", "gho", "ho", "hho", "jo", "jho", "ko", "lo", "mo", "no", "po", "ro", "so", "sho", "to", "uo", "vo", "zo". These are used in speaking of the letters, in pronouncing them in abbreviations, as "ko to po" for "k. t. p." (= etc.), and in spelling words, as "bo, i, ro, do, o, birdo". DIPHTHONGS. 5. Diphthongs are combinations of two vowels uttered as a single sound, by one breath-impulse. The diphthongs in Esperanto contain an i or u sound as the second element, but in order to avoid confusion with combinations of vowels not forming diphthongs (as in "naiva", like English "naive", etc.), they are written with "j" and "u" instead. Their pronunciation is as follows: "aj" like "ai" in "aisle". "ej" like "ei" in "vein", "ey" in "they". "oj" like "oi" in "coin", "oy" in "boy". "uj" like "ui" in "ruin", "u(e)y" in "gluey". "eu" like "ayw" in "wayward", or like E(h)oo" pronounced together. "au" like "ou" in "out", "ow" in "owl". COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS. 6. Each consonant, in a combination of two or more consonants, is pronounced with its full value, whether within a word or at its beginning. There are no silent letters. a. Thus, both consonants are clearly sounded in the groups "kn", "kv", "gv", "sv", in such words as "knabo", "kvin", "gvidi", "sviso". b. The combination "kz", as in "ekzisti", "ekzameno", must not be modified to the "gs" or "ks" represented by "x" in "exist", "execute". c. The combination "sc", as in "escepte", "scias", is equivalent to the combination "sts" in "laST Said", "firST Song", pronounced together rapidly. The "s" in a word beginning with "sc" may be sounded with the end of the preceding word, if that word ends in a vowel, as "mis-cias" for "mi scias". d. The "n" and "g" are pronounced separately in the combination "ng", in such words as "lingvo", "angulo", producing the sound of "ng" heard in "linger", not that in "singer". e. Each of two similar letters is clearly sounded, as "interrilato", "ellasi", like "inter-relate", "well-laid". SYLLABLES. 7. Each word contains as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. The division of syllables within a word is as follows: a. A single consonant goes with the following vowel, as "pa-no", "be-la", "a-e-ro". b. A consonant followed by "l" or "r" (which are liquids) goes with the "l" or "r", as in "ta-blo", "a-kra", "a-gra-bla". c. Otherwise, the syllable division is made before the last consonant of the group, as "sus-pek-ti", "sank-ta", "deks-tra". d. Prefixes are separated from the words to which they are attached, as "dis-meti", "mal-akra", and compound words are divided into their component parts, as "chef-urbo", "sun-ombrelo". ACCENT. 8. Words of more than one syllable are accented upon the syllable before the last, as "TA-blo", "a-GRA-bla", "sus-PEK-ti". WORDS FOR PRACTICE. 9. (To be pronounced aloud, and correctly accented) Afero, trairi, najbaro, aero, hodiau, pacienco, centono, chielo, ech, samideano, treege, obei, obeu, Europo, gvidi, ghojo, chiujn, justa, ghuste, jughi, jhaudo, lingvo, knabo, largha, pagi, kvieteco, ekzemplo, ellerni, fojo, krajono, forrajdi, kuirejo, chevalejo, sankteco, scio, nescio, edzo, meze, duobla, shipo, sharghi, posho, svingi, sklavo, palaj, shafajho, atmosfero, monahho, geometrio, laudi, vasta, eksplodi, senchesa, sensencajho, malluma, arbaranoj, mangho, fresha, auskulti, dauri. LESSON II. NOUNS. 10. Words which are the names of persons or things are called nouns. The ending, or final letter, of nouns in Esperanto is "o": knabo = boy. pomo = apple. chevalo = horse. tablo = table. THE ARTICLE. 11. The definite article is "la", the, as "la knabo", the boy, "la chevalo", the horse, "la tablo", the table, "la pomo", the apple. In English there is an indefinite article "a, an" for the singular, but none for the plural. Esperanto has no indefinite article for either singular or plural. Therefore "knabo" may mean "boy", or "a boy", "pomo" may mean "apple" or "an apple". ADJECTIVES 12. A word used with a noun (expressed or understood) to express a quality or characteristic is called an adjective. The ending of adjectives in Esperanto is "a": bela = beautiful. granda = large. flava = yellow. forta = strong. ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES. 13. An adjective is said to modify a noun whose quality it expresses. When directly preceding or following its noun, it is called an attributive adjective: la granda chevalo = the large horse. bela birdo = a beautiful bird. floro flava = a yellow flower. forta knabo = a strong boy. PRESENT TENSE OF THE VERB. 14. Words which express action or condition are called verbs. When representing an act or condition as a fact, and dealing with the present time, they are said to be in the present tense. The ending of all Esperanto verbs in the present tense is "-as": kuras = runs, is running. brilas = shines, is shining. flugas = flies, is flying. dormas = sleeps, is sleeping. 15. The person or thing whose action or condition the verb expresses is called the subject of the verb: La suno brilas, the sun shines (is shining), subject: suno. Knabo kuras, a boy runs (is running), subject: knabo. VOCABULARY. (To be memorized in this and in all following lessons.) bela = beautiful. kaj = and. birdo = bird. kantas = sings, is singing. blanka = white. knabo = boy. bona = good. kuras = runs, is running. brilas = shines, is shining. la = the. chevalo = horse. luno = moon. dormas = sleeps, is sleeping. marshas = walks, is walking. flava = yellow. pomo = apple. floro = flower. suno = sun. flugas = flies, is flying. tablo = table. forta = strong, violo = violet. granda = large. viro = man. READING LESSON. 1. Bona viro. 2. La granda tablo. 3. Blanka floro. 4. Flava birdo. 5. La bela birdo kantas. 6. Forta knabo kuras. 7. La bona viro marshas. 8. La bela chevalo kuras. 9. La suno brilas. 10. Birdo flugas kaj knabo kuras. 11. Chevalo blanka marshas. 12. La bela luno brilas. 13. La knabo kantas kaj la viro dormas. 14. Bela granda pomo. 15. La bona knabo kantas. 16. La granda chevalo dormas. 17. La suno brilas kaj la luno brilas. 18. Granda forta tablo. 19. Violo flava. 20. La bona flava pomo. SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. 1. A beautiful flower. 2. A good large table. 3. A yellow violet and a white violet. 4. The moon is-shining (shines). 5. The good boy is-walking (walks). 6. The beautiful yellow bird is-flying (flies). 7. The strong man is-sleeping (sleeps). 8. The white bird is-singing (sings). 9. A strong horse runs, and a man walks. 10. The sun shines, and the boy is-singing (sings). 11. The large yellow apple. 12. An apple large and good. LESSON III. THE PLURAL NUMBER. 16. The plural number of nouns, that is, the form which indicates more than one person or thing, is made by adding "-j" to the noun, as "viroj", men, from "viro", man; "tabloj", tables, from "tablo", table. [Footnote: "-oj" is pronounced like "oy" in "boy". See 5.] 17. An adjective modifying a plural noun agrees with it in number, being given the plural form by the addition of the ending -j. An adjective modifying two or more nouns used together is of course given the plural form: bonaj viroj, good men. grandaj chevaloj, large horses. belaj birdo kaj floro (bela birdo kaj bela floro), beautiful bird and (beautiful) flower. [Footnote: "-aj" is pronounced like "ai" in "aisle". See 5.] 18. The article is invariable, that is, does not change in form when used with plural nouns, as "la viro", the man, "la viroj", the men. The verb is also invariable in form: La viroj marshas, the men walk, the men are walking. La suno kaj la luno brilas, the sun and the moon are shining. La viro estas, the man is. La viroj estas, the men are. PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN. 19. When the adjective is a part of that which is told or predicated of the subject of the verb, as when used with the verbs "to be," "to seem," etc., it is called a "predicate adjective": La birdo estas bela, the bird is beautiful. La knabo shajnas bona, the boy seems good. La viroj estas fortaj, the men are strong. 20. A noun may also be used as part of the predicate, and is then called a "predicate noun": Violoj estas floroj, violets are flowers. La kolombo estas birdo, the dove is a bird. 21. Predicate nouns and adjectives agree in number with the word or words with which they are in predicate relation: Rozoj estas belaj, roses are beautiful. La knabo kaj la viro shajnas fortaj, the boy and the man seem strong. VOCABULARY alta = high, tall. kolombo = dove. arbo = tree. kushas = lies, is lying, lie. chambro = room. longa = long. domo = house. rozo = rose. en = in. rugha = red. estas = is, are. segho = chair. folio = leaf. sidas = sits, sit, is sitting. fresha = fresh. sur = on. ghardeno = garden. shajnas = seems, seem. kampo = field. verda = green. READING LESSON. 1. La alta viro estas en la ghardeno. 2. Blanka chevalo estas en la kampo. 3. Belaj birdoj sidas sur la verda arbo. 4. La bonaj knaboj estas en la domo. 5. La chambroj en la bela domo estas grandaj. 6. Freshaj floroj kushas sur la tablo. 7. La violoj en la kampo estas belaj. 8. La luno kaj la suno shajnas grandaj. 9. La kolomboj estas belaj birdoj. 10. La knaboj shajnas fortaj. 11. Rughaj pomoj estas sur la tablo en la chambro. 12. La fortaj viroj sidas sur seghoj en la longa chambro. 13. La arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj. 14. La kolomboj sur la arboj kantas. 15. Fortaj chevaloj marshas kaj kuras en la verdaj kampoj. 16. La knaboj dormas en la granda domo. 17. Rughaj, flavaj, kaj verdaj folioj estas en la ghardeno. 18. Longa tablo estas en la domo. 19. Belaj birdoj flugas kaj kantas en la kampo. 20. Freshaj rozoj shajnas belaj. 21. La folioj estas verdaj kaj rughaj. SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. 1. The trees in the garden are tall and green. 2. The rooms in the house are long. 3. The flowers on the table are red, yellow and white. 4. The leaves are long and green. 5. The men are-sitting (sit) on chairs in the garden. 6. In the garden are yellow roses. 7. The birds in the field are doves. 8. The boys in the room in the house seem tall. 9. Fresh violets are beautiful flowers. 10. The horses in the green fields seem strong. 11. Doves are-singing (sing) in the garden. 12. The men in the large house sleep. 13. The house is long and high, and the rooms in the house are large. 14. Red and yellow apples lie on the big table. 15. Green leaves are on the trees in the large garden. LESSON IV. TRANSITIVE VERBS. 22. The verbs so far given have been "intransitive verbs", expressing a state or an action limited to the subject, and not immediately affecting any other person or thing, as "la knabo kuras", the boy runs. On the other hand a "transitive verb" expresses an act of the subject upon some person or thing; as, "la knabo trovas -- --", the boy finds -- --. THE ACCUSATIVE CASE. 23. The person or thing acted upon is called the "direct object" of a transitive verb, and is given the ending "-n". This is called the accusative ending; and the word to which it is attached is said to be in the "accusative case": La viro havas seghon, the man has a chair. La knabo trovas florojn, the boy finds flowers. [Footnote: The ending "-n" follows the ending "-j", if the word to be put in the accusative case is in the plural number.] 24. An attributive adjective modifying a noun in the accusative case is made to agree in case, by addition of the same accusative ending "-n". This prevents any doubt as to which of two or more nouns in a sentence is modified by the adjective, and permits of variation in the order of the words: La knabo trovas belan floron, the boy finds a beautiful flower. Florojn belajn la viro havas, the man has beautiful flowers. La viro havas grandan seghon, the man has a large chair. Rughan rozon la knabo havas, the boy has a red rose. 25. A predicate adjective or noun (19) is never in the accusative case, nor is the accusative ending ever attached to the article, which is invariable as stated in 18. THE CONJUNCTION "KAJ". 26. In the expression "both ... and ...", the conjunction "kaj" is used for both words, being merely repeated: La viro kaj marshas kaj kuras, the man both walks and runs. La chevalo estas kaj granda kaj forta, the horse is both large and strong. La knabo havas kaj rozojn kaj violojn, the boy has both roses and violets. Kaj la knabo kaj la viro estas altaj, both the boy and the man are tall. THE NEGATIVE "NE". 27. The negative word meaning "not" when forming part of a sentence, and "no" when used as an answer to a question, is "ne". When used as a sentence-negative, it usually immediately precedes the verb. For emphatic negation of some other word than the verb, "ne" may precede that word: Violoj ne estas rughaj, violets are not red. La viroj ne sidas sur seghoj, the men are-not-sitting on chairs. La kolombo kantas, ne flugas, the dove is-singing, not flying. La domo estas blanka, ne verda, the house is white, not green. VOCABULARY apud = near, in the vicinity of. koloro = color. benko = bench. largha = wide, broad. brancho = branch. manghas = eat, eats. diversa = various. mola = soft. felicha = happy. nigra = black. frukto = fruit. ne = not, no. havas = have, has. rompas = break, breaks. herbo = grass. sed = but. ili = they. trovas = find, finds. kolektas = gather, collect. vidas = see, sees. READING LESSON. 1. La knaboj ne estas en la chambro en la blanka domo. 2. Ili estas en la granda ghardeno. 3. La ghardeno shajnas kaj longa kaj largha. 4. La felichaj knaboj vidas la belan ghardenon. 5. Ili vidas florojn apud alta arbo. 6. La floroj havas diversajn kolorojn. 7. La knaboj kolektas kaj rughajn kaj flavajn florojn. 8. Sed ili ne trovas fruktojn en la ghardeno. 9. Florojn blankajn ili ne vidas. 10. La alta arbo havas verdajn foliojn sur la branchoj. 11. La knaboj rompas branchon, kaj kolektas la fruktojn. 12. Ili vidas florojn sur la branchoj, sed la florojn ili ne kolektas. 13. La knaboj ne sidas sur benkoj en la ghardeno, sed kushas sur la mola herbo. 14. La kolomboj sidas sur la arboj, kaj ili estas felichaj. 15. La knaboj vidas la belajn birdojn. 16. Fortaj nigraj chevaloj manghas la herbon en la kampo. 17. La knaboj vidas la chevalojn, sed la chevaloj ne vidas la knabojn. 18. La chevaloj ne dormas, ili manghas. 19. La fresha herbo estas verda kaj mola. 20. Felichaj estas kaj la knaboj kaj la chevaloj. 21. La pomo estas bona frukto. SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. 1. Green leaves are on the trees. 2. The boys break branches and gather the apples. 3. They are near the tall tree in the garden. 4. They find leaves on the tree, but they do not see the fruit. 5. The house is long, broad and high. 6. The rooms in the house are both long and wide. 7. The men have strong black horses. 8. The horses eat the fresh green grass in the field. 9. The men sit on benches in the garden. 10. The boys do not sleep, but they lie on the soft grass. 11. They see both the birds and the flowers, and they seem happy. 12. The flowers have various colors, but the grass is green. 13. The doves are not sitting on the tree, they are flying near the trees. 14. Beautiful red roses are lying on the table in the house. 15. The large red apples are near the yellow roses. LESSON V. THE COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE. 28. The infinitive is a form of the verb which expresses merely the general idea of the action or condition indicated, and has some of the characteristics of a noun. The ending of the infinitive is "-i", as "kuri", to run, "esti", to be, "havi", to have. 29. An infinitive used to complete the meaning of another verb, serving as a direct object to a transitive verb, is called a "complementary infinitive". If the complementary infinitive is from a transitive verb, it may itself have a direct object: La knabo volas kuri, the boy wishes to run. Birdoj shatas kanti, birds like to sing. La knabo volas havi chevalon, the boy wishes to have a horse. Ili volas trovi florojn, they wish to find flowers. INTERROGATION. 30. An interrogative sentence is one which asks a question. Unless some directly interrogative word (as "who," "when," "why," etc.) is used, the sentence is rendered interrogative by use of the word "chu". This interrogative particle is placed at the beginning of a sentence, the words of which are left in the same order as for a statement. Since there is no inversion of order, there is no necessity for a word like English "do" or "does," to introduce the verb: Chu la knabo estas bona? Is the boy good? Chu ili havas florojn? Have they flowers? Chu la kolomboj kantas? Do the doves sing? (Are the doves singing?) THE CONJUNCTION "NEK". 31. In the expression "neither ... nor ...", the conjunction "nek" is used for both words. Since an adjective modifier of two or more words connected by "nek" must necessarily modify them separately, the adjective remains in the singular number: Ili nek marshas nek kuras, they neither walk nor run. La viro havas nek domon nek ghardenon, the man has neither a house nor a garden. Nek la rozo nek la violo estas verda, neither the rose nor the violet is green. VOCABULARY (Verbs will hereafter be quoted in the infinitive form.) bruna = brown. matura = ripe. cherizo = cherry. Mario = Mary. chu = (30). nek = neither, nor. dolcha = sweet. persiko = peach. gusto = taste. jes = yes. ghi = it. preferi = to prefer. Gertrude = Gertrude. shati = to like. knabino = girl. voli = to wish. READING LESSON. 1. Chu persiko estas rugha? 2. Jes, ghi estas kaj rugha kaj dolcha. 3. Chu cherizoj estas brunaj? 4. Ne, ili estas nek brunaj nek nigraj, sed flavaj. 5. Chu la pomo estas frukto? Jes, ghi estas bona frukto. 6. Chu la viro kaj la knabo havas pomojn? 7. Ne, ili havas nek pomojn nek persikojn. 8. Chu Mario havas la maturan frukton? 9. Mario kaj Gertrudo havas la frukton. 10. Ili estas en la domo, kaj manghas la maturan frukton. 11. La persikoj havas dolchan guston. 12. La knabinoj volas havi florojn, sed la knaboj preferas kolekti diversajn fruktojn. 13. Ili volas trovi maturajn cherizojn kaj flavajn persikojn. 14. La cherizoj havas belan rughan koloron. 15. La persikoj shajnas molaj kaj bonaj. 16. Mario rompas branchon, kaj vidas cherizojn sur la branchoj. 17. Gertrudo estas felicha, kaj volas havi la belan frukton. 18. Gertrudo estas alta, bela knabino. 19. Mario shatas cherizojn. 20. La knaboj kaj knabinoj sidas sur la verda herbo, kaj manghas la cherizojn. 21. Ili ne volas manghi pomojn, ili preferas la dolchajn cherizojn. 22. La folioj apud la cherizoj estas nek larghaj nek longaj. SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. 1. Have the girls beautiful flowers? 2. No, they have fresh fruit. 3. The boys do not wish to gather flowers. 4. They prefer to break the branches, and find the sweet cherries. 5. Gertrude wishes to eat apples, but Mary has neither apples nor peaches. 6. Do the girls like to sit in the house and eat fruit? 7. Yes, they like to sit in the house, but they prefer to walk in the field. 8. Are ripe peaches brown? 9. No, they are red and yellow. 10. Has the peach a sweet taste? 11. Do the girls see the beautiful black horses in the fields? 12. Yes, they see the horses, but the horses seem not to see the girls. 13. Mary sits on the soft green grass, and eats ripe fruit. LESSON VI. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 32. Words which stand in the place of nouns, as "you," "he," "who," "which," are called "pronouns". Pronouns referring to the person speaking ("I", "we"), the person addressed ("you", "thou"), or the person or thing spoken of ("he", "she", "it", "they"), are called "personal pronouns". They are considered singular or plural, according to whether they refer to one or more persons. Since the meaning of such pronouns indicates the number, no plural ending is ever attached to them. The personal pronouns are: Singular. Plural. First person: mi, I (me). ni, we (us). Second person: vi, you. vi, you. li, he (him). Third person: shi, she (her). ili, they (them). ghi, it. [Footnote: There is another pronoun "ci" (thou), for the second person singular, used in solemn style, as in the Bible, in poetry, and also for intimate or familiar address when desired, like German "du", French "tu", etc.] AGREEMENT WITH PRONOUNS. 33. Nouns in predicate relation with pronouns, or adjectives modifying such pronouns, are made to agree with them in number: Ni estas bonaj kaj felichaj, we are good and happy. Rozoj estas floroj, ill ne estas fruktoj, roses are flowers, they are not fruits. Gertrudo, vi estas bona, Gertrude, you are good. Knabinoj, chu vi estas felichaj? Girls, are you happy? CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 34. Any pronoun may serve as the subject of a verb. The combination of the verb with each of the personal pronouns in succession for its subject, is called the "conjugation" of the verb. Following is the conjugation of the present tense of "esti", and of "vidi": mi estas = I am. mi vidas = I see. vi estas = you are. vi vidas = you see. li (shi, ghi) estas = li (shi, ghi) vidas : he (she, it) is. he (she, it) sees. ni estas = we are. ni vidas = we see. vi estas = you (plural) are. vi vidas = you (plural) see. ili estas = they are. ili vidas = they see. VOCABULARY al = to, toward. hodiau = today. Arturo = Arthur. kudri = to sew. au = or (au ... au ..., either ... or ...) Roberto = Robert. char = because. skui = to shake. doni = to give. stari = to stand. fali = to fall. sub = under, beneath. fenestro = window. virino = woman. READING LESSON. 1. Knaboj, chu vi volas sidi en la domo, au en la ghardeno? 2. Ni preferas sidi hodiau en la ghardeno, sub la granda arbo. 3. Chu vi havas pomojn, au cherizojn? 4. Ni havas nek pomojn nek cherizojn, sed ni havas dolchajn persikojn. 5. Arturo donas al vi la maturajn persikojn, char li shatas kolekti frukton. 6. Arturo, chu vi rompas la branchojn? 7. Ne, sed mi skuas branchon, kaj la persikoj falas. 8. Mi staras sub la arbo, kaj kolektas la dolchan frukton. 9. La frukton mi donas al Mario kaj Gertrudo. 10. Mi volas doni persikon al Heleno, sed hodiau shi estas en la domo. 11. Shi sidas apud la fenestro kaj kudras. 12. Shi preferas kudri, kaj volas nek marshi nek sidi en la ghardeno. 13. Kaj shi kaj la virino apud shi volas kudri hodiau. 14. Ili estas felichaj, char ili vidas la birdojn en la arbo apud la fenestro. 15. La birdoj estas kolomboj, kaj sidas sur la arbo. 16. Sub la arboj en la kampo staras chevaloj, kaj ili manghas la verdan molan herbon. 17. Ni donas pomojn al ili, char ili shatas pomojn. 18. Ni estas felichaj, char ni havas belajn persikojn maturajn kaj bonajn. 19. Roberto, vi estas alta, sed vi, knabinoj, ne estas altaj. SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. 1. Does Arthur break the branch and gather the apples? 2. No, he shakes the branch, and the apples fall. 3. They are ripe and sweet. 4. Robert, do you wish to stand beneath the tree? 5. No, I do not wish to stand under it, but near it. 6. I wish to give both the peaches and the apples to the woman. 7. She is sitting in the house, near the window. 8. Mary is sitting in (on) a chair near her. 9. Both Mary and the woman are sewing. 10. They prefer to sew, and do not wish to walk in the garden to-day. 11. They are happy because they like to sew. 12. They do not wish to gather flowers, or walk, or see the birds. 13. They have neither apples nor peaches, but they do not wish to eat. 14. They give the fruit to the boys and girls. LESSON VII. THE PAST TENSE. 35. The past tense of the verb expresses an action which took place in past time, or a condition which existed in past time. The ending of this tense is "-is", as "kuris", ran, "flugis", flew, "brilis", shone. The conjugation of "esti" and also of "vidi" in the past tense is as follows: mi estis = I was. mi vidis = I saw. vi estis = you were. vi vidis = you saw. li (shi, ghi) estis = li (shi, ghi) vidis : he (she, it) was. he (she, it) saw. ni estis = we were. ni vidis = we saw. vi estis = you (plural) were. vi vidis = you (plural) saw. ili estis = they were. ili vidis = they saw. PREPOSITIONS. 36. A preposition is a word like "in," "on," placed before a noun or pronoun to indicate some relation between this and another word. The preposition is said to "govern" the noun or pronoun, which is called its "complement". In English, the complement of a preposition seems to be put in the accusative case if it is a pronoun, but to remain unchanged in form if it is a noun. In Esperanto the preposition does not affect the form of the word governed, which remains in the nominative case: La arbo estas en la ghardeno, the tree is in the garden. Bonaj pomoj estas sur ghi, good apples are on it. Mi donis cherizojn al li, I gave cherries to him. La knabo estas apud mi, the boy is near me. Sub la arbo staris chevalo, under the tree stood a horse. ACCUSATIVE CASE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 37. For use as the object of a verb, any pronoun may be put in the accusative case by addition of the accusative ending "-n" (23): La viro vidis vin kaj min, the man saw you and me. Li vidis ilin kaj nin, he saw them and us. Mi vidis nek lin nek shin, I saw neither him nor her. Ni volas havi ghin, we wish to have it. VOCABULARY agrabla = pleasant, agreeable. luma = light (not dark). bildo = picture. muro = wall. blua = blue. nun = now. danki = to thank. planko = floor. de = from. pordo = door. diri = to say. rigardi = to look (at). infano = child. tapisho = carpet. interesa = interesting. tra = through. READING LESSON. 1. Hodiau la knaboj kaj knabinoj estas en la granda domo. 2. Ili staras apud la tablo, en agrabla luma chambro. 3. Ghi havas altajn larghajn fenestrojn. 4. Sub la tablo kaj seghoj, mola tapisho kushas sur la planko. 5. La tapisho havas belajn kolorojn, rughan, bluan, flavan, kaj verdan. 6. Virino marshis tra la pordo, kaj staris apud la tablo. 7. Shi havis interesajn bildojn, kaj donis ilin al la knaboj kaj la knabinoj. 8. Shi diris "Chu vi volas rigardi la bildojn?" 9. "Jes, ni dankas vin," diris la infanoj, kaj shi donis al ili la bildojn. 10. Granda bildo falis de la tablo, sed Arturo nun havas ghin. 11. Li donas ghin al Mario, shi dankas lin, kaj donas ghin al Roberto. 12. Ili volis doni ghin al Gertrudo, sed shi diris "Ne, mi dankas vin, mi ne shatas rigardi bildojn." 13. Shi marshis de la tablo al la fenestro kaj diris "Mi preferas kudri." 14. Shi volis sidi en granda segho apud la fenestro. 15. La virino rigardis shin kaj diris "Mi donis la bildojn al vi, knaboj kaj knabinoj," char ili estas interesaj bildoj. 16. Gertrudo diris "Vi estas bona al ni, sed mi volas sidi apud la pordo au la fenestro. 17. Mi kolektis dolchajn violojn en la ghardeno, kaj nun mi volas rigardi la dolchajn florojn, kaj kudri." SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. 1. Do the boys and girls wish to be good? 2. They gathered fresh flowers and gave them to the woman. 3. The happy children were in the garden, but now they are in the house. 4. The rooms in the house are light, because they have large wide windows. 5. The doors in the room are wide and high. 6. The carpets on the floor seem soft, and have various beautiful colors. 7. A large strong table stands near the door. 8. We can sit near the table and look through the windows. 9. Gertrude is-looking-at the various pictures. 10. She looks-at them, and seems to be happy. 11. She gave a picture to me and I thanked her. 12. Helen walked near the table and shook it. 13. Arthur did not see the pictures because they were lying on the floor. 14. He looked-at the pictures on the wall, but they are neither interesting nor beautiful. 15. Robert looked through the window, and saw us in the pleasant garden. LESSON VIII. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 38. A pronoun which refers to the same person or thing as the subject of the verb in the sentence, but is used in some other relation than subject of that verb, is said to be used "reflexively", or to be a "reflexive pronoun". 39. The first and second personal pronouns, "mi", "ni", and "vi", ("ci") are used for the reflexive pronouns of the first and second persons. There can be no ambiguity, since words such as "me, myself, us, ourselves," can refer to no one else than the person or persons speaking; while words such as "you, yourself, yourselves (thee, thyself)," can refer to no one else than the person or persons addressed: Mi vidas min, I see myself. Mi diris al mi, I said to myself. Ni havas tapishon sub ni, we have a carpet under us. Ni amuzis nin, we amused ourselves. (Ci trovas domon apud ci, thou findest a house near thee.) Vi diras al vi, you say to yourself (yourselves). Vi amuzas vin, you amuse yourself (yourselves). 40. When the verb is in the third person, a pronoun of the third person, used otherwise than as the subject, might or might not refer to the subject of that verb. For example, "He sees a bird near him," may mean that the subject sees a bird near himself, or near another person. If such a pronoun of the third person is intended to refer to the subject of the verb, Esperanto uses a special reflexive pronoun "si" (accusative "sin"), which means "him(self)", "her(self)", "it(self)", "them(selves)", according to the gender and number of the verb: Li amuzas sin, he amuses himself. Arturo vidis birdon apud si, Arthur saw a bird near him(self). Shi trovas floron apud si, she finds a flower near her(self). Mario trovis sin sur blua tapisho, Mary found herself on a blue carpet. La tapisho havas diversajn kolorojn en si, the carpet has various colors in it(self). La birdo kashas sin sub la folioj, the bird hides itself under the leaves. Ili amuzas sin, they amuse themselves. La viroj havas seghojn apud si, the men have chairs near them(selves). La virinoj trovas florojn apud si, the women find flowers near them(selves). La arboj havas cherizojn sur si, the trees have cherries on them(selves). Sub si la infanoj trovis molan tapishon, under them(selves) the children found a soft carpet. [Footnote: From the very fact that "si" always refers to the subject of the verb, it is evident that "si" can never itself be used as subject or part of the subject of the verb.] REFLEXIVE VERBS. 41. A verb having a reflexive pronoun for its direct object is sometimes called a "reflexive verb", from the fact that some languages have had or still have a special reflexive or middle form of the verb, to express an act of the subject on or for itself, or they have certain verbs whose use is chiefly or exclusively reflexive. The conjugation of a verb reflexively is therefore as follows: mi amuzas min (mi min amuzas), I amuse myself. vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas), you amuse yourself. li (shi, ghi) amuzas sin (sin amuzas), he (she, it) amuses him (her, it)self. ni amuzas nin (ni nin amuzas), we amuse ourselves. vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas), you amuse yourselves. ili amuzas sin (ili sin amuzas), they amuse themselves. [Footnote: As Greek "etraponto", they turned themselves; Latin "exerceor", I exercise myself, "vescor", I eat (I feed myself); German "ich huete mich", I beware (I guard myself); Spanish "me alegro", or "alegrome", I rejoice (I gladden myself); French "il s'arrete", he halts (he stops himself).] VOCABULARY Alfredo = Alfred. komenci = to begin. amuzi = to amuse. laudi = to praise. antau = before, in front of. legi = to read. aparteni = to belong. libro = book. griza = gray. perdi = to lose. iri = to go. skatolo = small box or case. Johano = John. strato = street. kashi = to hide, to conceal. si = himself, etc. (40). READING LESSON. 1. Johano kaj Alfredo amuzis sin en la ghardeno. 2. Johano kashis sin, kaj Alfredo trovis Johanon. 3. Alfredo sin kashis en alta arbo, kaj Johano trovis Alberton. 4. Mario kaj Gertrudo sin kashis apud la floroj, kaj la knaboj trovis la knabinojn. 5. La knabinoj ne volas perdi sin en la agrabla kampo. 6. Johano komencis amuzi sin en luma chambro en la domo. 7. La muro havas interesajn bildojn sur si. 8. Tra la fenestro antau si Johano rigardas la virojn kaj la virinojn sur la strato. 9. Li havas molan grizan tapishon sub si, kaj ne volas seghon. 10. Li kaj Alfredo volis iri al la strato kaj amuzi sin. 11. Ili marshis al la pordo, kaj trovis rughan skatolon antau si. 12. En la skatolo estis libro, kaj Johano diris al si "La libro ne apartenas al mi." 13. Li diris al Alfredo "Char ni trovis ghin, mi volas legi la libron." 14. Virino antau pordo komencis rigardi la knabojn, kaj ili diris al shi "Chu la libro apartenas al vi? Ni trovis ghin en skatolo." 15. La virino diris "Jes, ni perdis ghin, kaj mi dankas vin, char vi donas al mi la skatolon kaj la libron." 16. Shi iris al la strato, kaj la knaboj iris al la domo. SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. 1. The book in the gray box does not belong to me. 2. I found it in front of me, near the door. 3. You began to praise yourselves, but I do not praise myself. 4. They hid themselves, and I stood near them. 5. The birds sit on the tree, because it has ripe cherries on it. 6. Alfred amused himself on the street, but we like to amuse ourselves in the house. 7. The trees have good fruit on them. 8. She found herself in a beautiful light room. 9. The carpet on the floor had various colors in it, and the high wall had pictures on it. 10. The pictures had boys and girls in them. 11. The book belongs to her, but it fell from the box. 12. The table has red and blue and yellow flowers on it. 13. Did you see the doves near the flowers in front of (before) you? 14. The birds saw the fruit on the tree in front of them, and flew to the branches. 15. I sat on the bench in the garden, and began to read an interesting book. 16. They hid themselves in the leaves and began to sing. 17. The child is in a pleasant room. LESSON IX. LIMITATION OF THE THIRD PERSONAL PRONOUN. 42. Since there is a special reflexive pronoun of the third person, the third personal pronouns, "li", "shi", "ghi", "ili", when used otherwise than as subjects, never refer to the subject of the verb, but always to some other person or thing: La knabo laudas lin, the boy praises him (another person). Shi donas pomojn al shi, she gives apples to her (to another person). La birdo vidis ghin, the bird saw it (something else than the bird). La knaboj kashis ilin, the boys hid them (other persons or things). Ili trovis ilin apud si, they found them (other persons or things) near them(selves). La birdoj flugis al ili, the birds flew to them. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. 43. Words like "my," "his," "your," which indicate ownership or some possessive relation, are called "possessive adjectives". Possessive adjectives are formed from the personal pronouns by adding the adjective ending "-a", as "mia", my, "via", your ("cia", thy), "lia", his, "shia", her, "ghia", its, "nia", our, "via", your (plural), "ilia", their. The limitation in the use of the third personal pronouns ("42") is also true of the adjectives derived from them: Mia domo kaj miaj ghardenoj estas grandaj, my house and my gardens are large. Johano sidas sur via segho, John is sitting in your chair. Li havas lian chevalon, he has his (another person's) horse. Chu vi legis shiajn librojn? Did you read her books? [Footnote: Sometimes these words are called possessive pronouns, although really they are not pronouns at all, but pronominal adjectives with a possessive meaning.] 44. Reflexive possessive adjectives, like the reflexive pronoun, refer to the subject of the verb in the sentence. For the first and second persons, they are the same as the personal possessive adjectives. The reflexive possessive adjective of the third person is "sia", his, her, its, their, formed by adding the ending "-a" to the reflexive pronoun "si": Mi havas miajn librojn sur mia tablo, I have my books on my table. Johano perdis siajn librojn, John lost his (John's) books. Mario estas en sia chambro, Mary is in her room. La birdoj flugis al sia arbo, the birds flew to their tree. PRONOMINAL USE OF POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. 45. Possessive adjectives may be used predicatively, as "the book is mine," or may modify some word or words not expressed, as "mine are large." Instead of having special forms, like English "mine", "yours", "hers", etc., Esperanto uses the regular possessive adjectives preceded by the article: La granda libro estas la mia, the large book is mine. La via estas granda, la miaj estas belaj, yours is large, mine are beautiful. Ili havas la sian, sed ne la lian, they have theirs, but not his. La iliaj shajnas esti bonaj, theirs seem to be good. VOCABULARY diro = saying, remark. mangho = meal. ghis = as far as, up to, down to. nesto = nest. hierau = yesterday. pasero = sparrow. juna = young. patro = father. kapti = to catch, to seize. post, after, behind. kato = cat. surprizi = to surprise. kolera = angry. teni = to hold, to keep. lavi = to wash. vizagho = face. READING LESSON. 1. Hierau mi perdis mian grizan katon. 2. Ilia kato kaptis nian birdon. 3. Via kolera diro surprizis mian patron. 4. Chu la granda kampo apartenas al shia patro? 5. Ne, ghi ne estas la lia. 6. La lia estas bela, sed mi preferas la mian. 7. Chu vi shatas vian libron au la ilian? 8. Li havas nek siajn chevalojn nek la iliajn. 9. La knabinoj shajnas esti koleraj. 10. Ili komencis legi siajn librojn. 11. La viro kaptis kaj tenis siajn chevalojn, sed li ne trovis iliajn chevalojn. 12. Shia libro kushas sur la planko, post shia segho. 13. Shi ne trovis ilian libron, sed la junaj infanoj trovis la nian. LA KATO KAJ LA PASERO. Griza kato iris de la domo ghis la strato. Ghi vidis paseron antau si, kaj volis manghi ghin. La kato staris post granda arbo, kaj kaptis la paseron. La pasero diris "Bona kato lavas sin antau sia mangho, sed vi ne lavis vian vizaghon." La interesa diro surprizis la katon. La kato ne tenis la paseron, sed komencis lavi sian vizaghon. La pasero flugis de la kato ghis la arbo. La kolera kato diris "Mi perdis mian manghon, char mi komencis lavi min antau la mangho!" Nun la katoj ne lavas sin antau la manghoj. Ili havas siajn manghojn, kaj post la manghoj ili lavas la vizaghojn. La paseroj ne surprizas ilin nun, sed ili tenas la paserojn. La katoj estas felichaj, sed la paseroj ne estas felichaj. La junaj paseroj volas flugi al la nestoj en la arboj. SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. 1. The boys are not in their (own) house, but they are in his. 2 Is the large beautiful house yours? 3. The woman walked through the door of their house, as far as her room. 4. The room has interesting pictures on its walls. 5. We praised their flowers yesterday, and they gave them to us. 6. Their books are in their (the books') box. 7. They are on their (the boys') table. 8. The gray cat was angry because it did not hold the bird. 9. The sparrow surprised it, and it commenced to wash its face. 10. The sparrow wished to fly as far as the tall tree, but the cat held it. 11. The sparrow said "A good cat washes its face, but you are not a good cat." 12. The sparrow was angry because the cat seized it and held it. 13. The bird did not lose its meal, but the angry cat lost its meal. 14. Do you see his cat or hers? 15. I see both his and hers, but ours is not in our garden. 16. My father is a tall strong man. 17. I like to look at him. 18. The children saw the young birds in the nest. LESSON X. THE ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECTION. 46. When the verb in a sentence expresses motion, the word indicating the place, person or thing toward which the motion is directed is given the accusative ending. This is also true if the word is the complement of any preposition which does not itself sufficiently indicate motion in a certain direction. (The prepositions "al", to, toward, "ghis", as far as, "tra", through, express motion in the direction of their complements, and could not well be used except in a sentence whose verb expresses motion. Consequently the accusative is not used after any of these three): Li iris ghardenon, he went to the garden ("gardenward"). La viro iros Bostonon, the man will go to Boston ("Bostonward"). [Footnote: Cf. English "he went home," "he went homeward," etc.] Li estis en la ghardeno, kaj kuris en la domon, he was in the garden and ran into the house. Ghi ne estas sur la tablo, ghi falis sur la plankon, it is not on the table, it fell upon the floor. Ili falis sub la tablon ghis la planko, they fell under the table as far as the floor (direction expressed by whole prepositional phrase). Mi iris tra la domo en mian chambron, I went through the house into my room. THE ARTICLE FOR THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE. 47. In many sentences where the possessor is already sufficiently indicated, English nevertheless uses a possessive adjective, as in "I wash my face," "he shakes his head," but on the other hand omits it entirely with certain words indicating relationship, as in "Brother gave it to me," etc. In both cases Esperanto uses the article instead of the possessive adjective, unless the fact of possession is to be emphasized: Mi lavas la vizaghon, I wash my face. Li skuas la kapon, he shakes his head. La patro estas alta, Father is tall. Mi donis ghin al la patro, I gave it to Father. APPOSITION. 48. English often uses the preposition "of" between two words where no idea of possession really exists, as "the city of Boston." Since nouns used in apposition refer to the same thing, and are in the same grammatical construction, Esperanto does not use a preposition: La urbo Bostono estas granda, the city (of) Boston is large. Mia amiko Johano estas alta, my friend John is tall. Chu vi ne konas min, vian amikon? do you not know me, your friend? VOCABULARY arabo = arab. meti = to put, to place. baldau = soon. nazo = nose. Bostono = Boston. nur = only, merely. frato = brother. pushi = to push. kamelo = camel. trans = across. kapo = head. tuta = whole, entire, all. kolo = neck. urbo = city. korpo = body. varma = warm. LA ARABO KAJ LA KAMELO. Arabo sidis en sia domo en la urbo. Apud domo trans la strato li vidis kamelon. La kamelo iris trans la straton ghis la pordo, kaj diris al la arabo, "Frato, mi ne estas varma, mi volas meti nur la nazon en vian varman domon." La arabo skuis la kapon, sed la kamelo metis la nazon tra la pordo en la chambron. La kamelo komencis pushi sian tutan vizaghon en la domon. Baldau li havis la kapon ghis la kolo en la domo. Post la kapo iris la kolo en ghin, kaj baldau la tuta korpo estis en la domo. La arabo estis kolera, char li ne volis havi tutan kamelon en sia domo. Li kuris al la kamelo, kaptis lin, tenis lin, kaj diris, "Frato, vi volis meti nur la nazon en mian domon. La chambro ne estas granda sed ghi estas la mia, kaj mi preferas sidi en ghi." "Via diro estas bona," diris la kamelo, "via domo ne estas granda, sed ghi estas varma, kaj mi shatas stari en ghi. Mi preferas stari kaj kushi en ghi, kaj mi donos al vi mian arbon trans la strato. Chu vi ne volas iri sub la arbon?" Kaj la kamelo pushis la arabon de lia domo en la straton de la urbo. La kamelo nun trovis sin en varma chambro, sed la juna arabo staris trans la strato kaj ne estis varma. SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. 1. The cat ran across the street. 2. Across the street it found a sparrow. 3. It caught the bird, but began to wash its face, and the sparrow flew to the nest. 4. I went into the garden as far as the large tree. 5. I did not hold my book, and it fell upon the floor. 6. It began to fall under the table, but I seized it. 7. My brother pushed the books into their box, and put it on the table. 8. We went to the city of Boston yesterday and into a beautiful house. 9. The arab shook his head and said, "No." 10. But the camel commenced to go through the door. 11. His remark did not seem to surprise the camel. 12. The camel pushed its head and neck, and soon its whole body into the warm house. 13. It wished to put merely its nose into it. 14. The arab was angry, because it pushed itself into his house. 15. He said, "Brother, the house is mine, and I do not wish to have you in it." 16. But soon after the remark, the whole camel was in the house. 17. He pushed the young arab into the street. 18. He went across the street and stood upon the grass under a tree. LESSON XI. POSSESSIVE CASE OF NOUNS. 49. The preposition "de" is used to express possession or connection: La muroj de la domo, the walls of the house. La koloroj de la floroj, the colors of the flowers. La libro de la knabo, the book of the boy (the boy's book). Brancho de la arbo, a branch of the tree. La ghardeno de la viroj, the garden of the men (the men's garden). IMPERSONAL VERBS. 50. Verbs with an impersonal or indeterminate subject, as "it rains," "it is snowing," are called impersonal, because there is no actual subject, the word "it" serving merely as an introductory particle. No such particle is used with impersonal verbs in Esperanto: Pluvas, it rains, it is raining. Neghis hierau, it snowed yesterday. VERBS PRECEDING THEIR SUBJECTS. 51. When the verb in a sentence precedes its subject, English often uses an introductory particle, such as "there," "it." In Esperanto no such particles are needed: Estas floroj sur la tablo, there are flowers on the table. Estis Johano, ne Alfredo, en la ghardeno, it was John, not Alfred, in the garden. Estas domo en la kampo, there is a house in the field. Estis mi, it was I. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. 52. Words like "au", "kaj", "nek", "sed", which join words, word-groups, or sentences together are conjunctions. All the conjunctions given so far connect words, phrases, or sentences of similar rank or kind. These are called coordinating conjunctions, and the words, phrases, or sentences connected by them are said to be coordinate: Chu vi marshas au kuras? ("Au" connects the verbs.) Shi iris, kaj ni estis felichaj. ("Kaj" connects the sentences.) Nek vi nek mi vidis ghin. (The second "nek" connects the pronouns, the first being introductory and adverbial.) Au li au shi perdis la libron. (The second "au" connects the pronouns, the first being introductory and adverbial.) Ghi falis sur la seghon, sed ne sur la plankon. ("Sed" connects the phrases.) Li ne shatis ghin. Tamen li tenis ghin. ("Tamen" connects the sentences.) [Footnote: A phrase is a word-group forming an expression, but not containing a verb, as "through the house," "of the man," "before me," etc.] [Footnote: Coordinating conjunctions may be further classified according to their meaning: "Au" is disjunctive, connecting alternates, and expressing separation. "Kaj" is copulative, expressing union. "Nek" is disjunctive, expressing separation and also negation. "Sed" is adversative, expressing opposition, contrast, or modification of a previous statement. "Tamen" is adversative, affirming something in spite of a previous objection or concession. "Do," "so, then, consequently," is argumentative, expressing a logical inference or result in a somewhat conversational manner.] VOCABULARY akvo = water. porti = to carry. amiko = friend. richa = rich, wealthy. ankau = also. sablo = sand. bezoni = to need. sako = sack, bag. dezerto = desert. seka = dry. fidela = faithful. tamen = nevertheless. mono = money. trinki = to drink. neghi = to snow. veni = to come. pluvi = to rain. vojo = road, way. LA ARABO EN LA DEZERTO. Arabo iris trans grandan sekan dezerton. Kamelo, lia fidela amiko, portis lin. La kamelo ankau portis belajn tapishojn, char la arabo estis richa viro. La arabo havis ne nur tapishojn, sed ankau sakojn. En la sakoj estis akvo, char en la dezerto nek pluvas nek neghas. La viro trinkis akvon, kaj ankau donis akvon al sia kamelo. La kamelo marshis kaj marshis, sed ne venis al la domo de la arabo, char ili perdis la vojon. La suno brilis, kaj la sablo de la dezerto shajnis varma. La arabo ne trovis la vojon, kaj baldau li ne havis akvon. Tamen la kamelo marshis kaj marshis, kaj baldau la arabo vidis sakon antau si, sur la seka sablo. Li estis felicha kaj diris al si "Chu estas akvo en ghi? Mi volas trinki, kaj volas doni akvon al mia fidela kamelo." Li ankau volis lavi la tutan vizaghon en la akvo, char li estis varma. Post sia diro li kaptis la sakon, kaj komencis rigardi en ghin. Li metis la nazon en ghin, sed ne trovis akvon en la sako. Nek li nek lia fidela kamelo havis akvon, char estis nur mono en la sako. La arabo estis kolera, char li ne volis monon, li bezonis akvon. Li havis monon en sia domo en la urbo, kaj volis trovi akvon. Chu li tamen metis la sakon trans la kolon de sia kamelo? Ne, li ne volis meti ghin sur sian kamelon, char li estis kolera. Li ne tenis la sakon, sed ghi falis sur la sablon, kaj kushis apud li. La sako nun kushas sur la sablo de la granda dezerto, kaj la mono estas en ghi. SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. 1. Today it is raining, but yesterday it was snowing. 2. Did your friend John carry his chair into the house? 3. I saw your good friends on the way to the city. 4. Is the large sack behind the door theirs? 5. Neither she nor her brother saw the whole city. 6. They went to the city of Boston and lost their way. 7. There are interesting houses across the street. 8. The body of a camel is large, and its neck is long. 9. The camel pushed its head into the house of the arab, and he was angry. 10. On the sand in the desert there lies a sack. 11. In the sack there is money. 12. The arab was warm, and wished to drink water. 13. He also wished to give water to the faithful camel. 14. Nevertheless, he found only money in the sack. 15. He was angry, and did not keep the sack. 16. Yesterday he wished to find money, but today he prefers water. 17. Nevertheless there is only sand in the desert. 18. He wished to come from the dry desert to the house of a faithful friend. 19. Both he and his friends are rich. 20. They went to his house yesterday, and came to theirs today. 21. They do not need money. LESSON XII. INDIRECT STATEMENTS. 53. A statement made indirectly by means of a clause dependent upon a verb meaning "say," "think," "know," "believe," or a similar expression, as in "I know that he came," "I hear that he is good," is called an "indirect statement." (The "direct" statement is "he came," "he is good.") An indirect statement is joined to the main verb or sentence by the subordinating conjunction "ke," that. Johano diras ke vi venis hierau, John says that you came yesterday. Shi opinias ke estas mono en la sako, she thinks that there is money in the bag. [Footnote: A clause is a group of words including a verb, which is dependent upon or subordinate to a main verb or sentence, as "--that he came," "--when he went," "--that he is good," etc.] [Footnote: In English the subordinating conjunction may sometimes be omitted, either "I think that he is good," or "I think he is good," being usually permissible. But in Esperanto there is no variation, and the conjunction "ke" is never omitted.] THE INDEFINITE PERSONAL PRONOUN "ONI". 54. When an indefinite personal pronoun is desired, as in the expressions "one knows," "they say," "people say," "you can see," etc., the indefinite personal pronoun "oni" is used. This pronoun may also be used in translating such expressions as "it is said," "I am told," etc.: Oni diras ke li estas richa, they say (one says) that he is rich. Oni vidas ke ili estas amikoj, one sees that they are friends. Mi opinias ke oni shatas lin, I think that people like him (that he is liked). Oni diris al mi ke estas sablo en la dezerto, I was told (people said to me) that there is sand in the desert. Oni opinias ke shi estas felicha, it is thought (one thinks) that she is happy. Chu oni vidis nin en la ghardeno? Were we seen (did people see us) in the garden? Oni shatas agrablajn infanojn, people like agreeable children (agreeable children are liked). THE FUTURE TENSE. 55. The future tense of the verb expresses an act or state as about to take place, or as one that will take place in future time. The ending of this tense is "-os," as "kuros," will run, "flugos," will fly, "brilos," will shine. The conjugation of "esti" and also of "vidi" in the future tense is as follows: mi estos = I shall be. mi vidos = I shall see. vi estos = you will be. vi vidos = you will see. li (shi, ghi) estos = li (shi, ghi) vidos : he (she, it) will be. he (she, it) will see. ni estos = we shall be. ni vidos = we shall see. vi estos = you (plural) will be. vi vidos = you (plural) will see. ili estos = they will be. ili vidos = they will see. VOCABULARY audi = to hear. oni = (see 54). blovi = to blow. opinii = to think, to opine. greno = grain (wheat, corn, etc.). orienta = east, eastern. ke = that (conjunction). pluvo = rain. kontrau = against. suda = south, southern. montri = to show, to point out. velki = to wilt, to wither. norda = north, northern. vento = wind. nova = new. ventoflago = weathercock. okcidenta = west, western. vetero = weather. LA VENTOFLAGO. Estis varma vetero, la suno brilis, kaj suda vento blovis. Tamen la nova ventoflago sur la domo diris al si, "La sudan venton mi ne shatas. Mi preferas orientan venton." La vento orienta audis la diron kaj ghi venis kontrau la ventoflagon. Pluvis kaj pluvis, kaj oni estis kolera kontrau la ventoflago, char ghi montras orientan venton. Ghi diris, "Pluvas nun, sed la greno en la kampoj bezonos sekan veteron. Oni estos kolera kontrau mi, char mi montras orientan venton." La okcidenta vento audis la ventoflagon, kaj baldau venis. Ghi ne estis forta, sed ghi estis seka kaj agrabla vento, kaj ne portis pluvon. La viroj, virinoj, kaj junaj infanoj volis trinki, sed ili ne havis akvon. La greno kaj la floroj velkis, kaj la frukto ankau falis. La nova ventoflago diris, "Oni estos kolera kontrau mi, char ne pluvas. Oni opinios ke, char mi montras okcidentan venton, la frukto falas, kaj la greno kaj floroj velkas. Mi shatas montri nek okcidentan nek orientan venton!" Norda vento audis kaj venis al la ventoflago. La vetero ne estis agrabla, kaj la virinoj kaj la junaj infanoj ne estis varmaj. Neghis, kaj oni estis kolera. Oni diris "La greno kaj la frukto bezonas varman veteron, sed hodiau neghas. Ni preferas la sudan venton. Ni havis ghin, antau la orienta, la okcidenta, kaj la norda ventoj. La ventoflago ne estas fidela amiko al ni. Ghi ne montras bonajn ventojn, kaj ni volas rompi ghin!" Oni kuris al la domo, kaptis la novan ventoflagon, kaj ankau rompis ghin. Ghi falis, kaj kushis sur la vojo antau la domo. SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. 1. One can see that the weathercock points-out the winds. 2. They say that the west wind will be a dry wind. 3. The weathercock now shows that an agreeable south wind blows. 4. People will be angry with (against) the weathercock, because it points-out a north wind. 5. A north wind is not warm, and the grain and fruit will need a warm wind. 6. It snowed, and the young children were not warm, because the north wind blew. 7. People will like a south wind, but an east wind will carry rain. 8. Can one find money in the desert? 9. Do you think (that) he is in the house? 10. He is said to be (they say that he is) on the street. 11. It is thought (people think) that the camel is a faithful friend. 12. I am told (people tell me) that the camel has a large body, and a long neck. 13. One can see that it is not beautiful. 14. People do not like to drink warm water. 15. Nevertheless we shall drink warm water in the city. 16. It was beautiful weather yesterday, but today we shall have good weather also. 17. I think that a warm wind will blow soon. 18. My friend has a beautiful new house. LESSON XIII. THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN "TIU". 56. The demonstrative pronoun "tiu", that, is used to indicate a person or a definitely specified thing. The plural is "tiuj", those: Tiu estas la via, kaj mi volas tiun, that is yours, and I wish that one. Tiuj estos koleraj kontrau vi, those will be angry with you. Li audis tiujn, he heard those (persons, or things). 57. The demonstrative pronoun "tiu" is also used as a "pronominal adjective", in agreement with a noun: Tiu vento estos varma, that wind will be warm. Mi vidas tiun ventoflagon, I see that weathercock. Tiuj infanoj estas junaj, those children are young. Mi trovos tiujn librojn, I shall find those books. TENSES IN INDIRECT QUOTATIONS. 58. The verb in an indirect statement (53) or an indirect question remains in the same tense in which it would be if the statement or question were direct. (In English this is true only if the introductory verb is present or future, since after an introductory past tense the tense of the indirect quotation is changed, and "am, is, are, have, will" become "was, were, had, would," etc.) Mi diras ke li estas bona, I say that he is good. " diris " " " " , I said that he was good. " diros " " " " , I shall say that he is good. Li miras chu mi audas, he wonders whether I hear. " miris " " " , he wondered whether I heard. " miros " " " , he will wonder whether I hear. Mi opiniis ke ghi estas bona, I thought that it was good (I thought "it is good"). Oni miris chu li venos, they wondered whether he would come (they wondered "will he come?"). [Footnote: An indirect question is introduced by "chu", whether, after verbs meaning "ask," "wonder," "know," etc.: "Mi miras chu li venis", I wonder whether he came. "Oni demandas chu li estas richa", people ask whether he is rich.] FORMATION OF FEMININE NOUNS. 59. Feminine nouns corresponding to distinctly masculine nouns such as "frato", "knabo", "viro", may be formed from these by inserting the suffix "-in-" just before the noun-ending "-o": fratino = sister patrino = mother (from frato, brother). (from patro, father). knabino = girl virino = woman (from knabo, boy). (from viro, man). [Footnote: Cf. English names similarly formed from masculine names, as "Pauline, Josephine, Ernestine, Geraldine," etc., also German "Koenigin", queen, from "Koenig", king; "Loewin", lioness, from "Loewe", lion, etc.] VOCABULARY almenau = at least. paroli = to talk, to speak. chapelo = hat. parko = park. chielo = sky, heaven. preskau = almost. filo = son. pri = concerning, about. konstrui = to build. promeni = to take a walk. miri = to wonder. super = above. morgau = tomorrow. timi = to fear, to be afraid (of). nubo = cloud. tiu = that (56). ombrelo = umbrella. zorga = careful. EN LA PARKO. Miaj junaj amiko kaj amikino, kaj ankau ilia patrino, iris hierau al la parko. La infanoj diris al la patrino ke la parko estas agrabla, kaj ke ili volas promeni en ghi. La knabino parolis al sia frato pri la belaj floroj. Shi diris al li ke la floroj velkas, kaj ke la herbo en preskau la tuta parko bezonas pluvon. La knabo diris hodiau al mi ke hierau li kaj lia fratino audis la birdojn en la arboj super siaj kapoj. Li diris ke li miris pri tiuj birdoj, tamen li opinias ke la birdoj baldau konstruos siajn nestojn en tiuj arboj. La infanoj promenis, kaj baldau ili vidis ke grizaj nuboj venas sur la chielon, kaj mia juna amikino timis ke pluvos. Shi parolis al la patrino pri la nuboj kaj la pluvo, montris al shi la grizajn nubojn, kaj diris ke si volas iri al la domo. Ili komencis marshi al la strato, kaj preskau kuris, char ili ne havis ombrelon. Tra la fenestroj de la domoj oni rigardis ilin, kaj la knabo miris chu li kaj liaj patrino kaj fratino amuzas tiujn virojn kaj virinojn. Tamen la patrino diris ke shi ne timas ke shi amuzos tiujn, sed ke shi timas la pluvon. Shi kaj la filino volas esti zorgaj pri almenau la novaj chapeloj. La filo diris al shi ke li ankau estas zorga, sed ke li opinias ke ne pluvos. Baldau la patro venis al ili, kaj portis ombrelojn, char li ankau timis la pluvon. Li miris chu la infanoj kaj ilia patrino havas ombrelojn. Baldau pluvis, sed ili estis sekaj, char ili havis la ombrelojn. Morgau ili ne promenos en la parko, sed iros al la urbo. SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. 1. The east wind is dry and the south wind will be too warm. 2. A west wind blew against the weathercock, but the grain needed a south wind. 3 A north wind is blowing and I think that it will soon snow. 4. It (51) will be beautiful weather tomorrow, because a pleasant wind is now blowing. 5. The flowers will wither because those children gathered them. 6. They are talking about that park, but I do not wish to take-a-walk, because there are clouds in (on) the sky. 7. At least we shall take an umbrella, and my brother will hold it over our heads. 8. My sister said "Mother and I are-afraid that it will rain." 9. My young sister will be careful about that new umbrella. 10. I wonder whether she will take-a-walk tomorrow. 11. That park is pleasant and the grass is soft and green. 12. The birds are building their nests now, in those branches above our heads. 13. The sky above us is blue, and a west wind is beginning to blow. 14. I can see that weathercock, on that large house near the park. 15. Mother says that my sister will have a new hat tomorrow. 16. She will be careful of (about) that hat. 17. My father's friend is very careful of his son. 18. One sees that he is not a strong boy. LESSON XIV. THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN "CHI TIU". 60. The demonstrative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) meaning "this" is formed by using with "tiu" (56) the word "chi", which expresses the general idea of nearness or proximity. (Consequently the literal meaning of "chi tiu" is "that one nearby", "that one here".) The word "chi" may either precede or follow the pronoun: Chi tiu estas la mia, this is mine. Mi vidis chi tiun, I saw this one. Chu vi volas tiujn chi? Do you wish these? Chi tiu knabino estas mia fratino, this girl is my sister. Mi vidis chi tiujn chapelojn, I saw these hats. Chi tiuj amikoj promenos, these friends will take a walk. 61. The words "tiu" and "chi tiu" may be used to distinguish between persons or things "previously" mentioned and "just" mentioned: Gertrude kaj Mario estas en la parko. Tiu rigardas la florojn, chi tiu kolektas ilin. Gertrude and Mary are in the park. The former (that one) looks at the flowers, the latter (this one) gathers them. POSSESSIVE FORM OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN. 62. To express possession, the demonstrative pronouns "tiu" and "chi tiu" have the special possessive or genitive forms "ties", that one's, and "chi ties", this one's. The use of "ties" and "chi ties" to mean "the former" and "the latter" is similar to the use of "tiu" and "chi tiu" shown in 61: Mi iris al ties domo, I went to that one's house. Chi ties filoj estas junaj, this person's (this one's) sons are young. Mi shatas ties koloron, sed preferas chi tiun floron, I like that one's color, but prefer this flower. La patro kaj lia amiko parolas pri siaj domoj. Ties estas nova, sed chi ties shajnas bela. Father and his friend are talking about their houses. The former's is new, but the latter's seems beautiful. THE SUFFIX "-IL-". 63. Names of instruments, tools or utensils may be formed by adding the suffix "-il-" (followed by the ending "-o") to roots whose meaning permits: flugilo, wing (from flugi, to fly). kaptilo, snare, trap (from kapti, to catch). kudrilo, needle (from kudri, to sew). montrilo, indicator, (clock) hand (from montri, to point out, show). tenilo, handle (from teni, to hold). [Footnote: The root of a word is that part of it which contains the essential meaning, and to which the verb endings "-i", "-as", "-is", "-os", the noun ending "-o", the adjective ending "-a", etc., are attached, when no suffix intervenes. Thus, "vir-" is the root of "viro" and of "virino"; "kur-" is the root of "kuri", etc.] THE EXPRESSION OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENTALITY. 64. The means or instrumentality through which an act is accomplished is expressed by use of the preposition "per": Oni kudras per kudrilo, one sews by means of (with) a needle. La birdoj flugas per flugiloj, the birds fly by (with) wings. Li amuzas sin per tiuj bildoj, he amuses himself with (by) those pictures. Mi trovis ghin per via helpo, I found it by (through) your help. VOCABULARY busho = mouth. per = by means of (64). dekstra = right (not left). supo = soup. chi (see 60). telero = plate. forko = fork. terpomo = potato. helpo = help. ties = that one's (62). kafo = coffee. tranchi = to cut. kulero = spoon. tre = very, exceedingly. mano = hand. viando = meat. LA MANGHO. Hierau mi miris chu mi havos bonan manghon en la domo de mia amiko. Sed mi opiniis ke mi havos tre bonan manghon, char mia amiko shatas doni bonajn manghojn al siaj amikoj. Oni metis tre bonan supon antau mi, kaj mi manghis tiun per granda kulero. Post la supo mi havis viandon. Chi tiun mi tenis per forko, kaj tranchis per akra tranchilo. La forko, tranchilo kaj kulero estas manghiloj. Mi havis ne nur viandon, sed ankau novajn terpomojn. Mi tranchis tiujn chi per la tranchilo, sed mi metis ilin en la bushon per forko. Mi tenis la forkon en la dekstra mano, kaj metis la tranchilon trans mian teleron. Oni bezonas akran tranchilon, sed oni ne bezonas tre akran forkon. Post la viando kaj la terpomoj, oni donis al mi freshajn maturajn cherizojn. Ili kushis sur granda telero, kaj havis belan koloron. Ilia gusto estis ankau bona. Mi preskau ne diris ke mi ankau havis kafon. Mi parolos morgau al mia amiko pri lia kafo, kaj laudos ghin. Post la mangho, najbaro de mia amiko venis en chi ties domon, kaj ili parolis al mi pri siaj novaj domoj. Per la helpo de sia patro, mia amiko konstruos grandan domon. Lia najbaro volas konstrui belan sed ne tre grandan domon. Ties nova domo estos bela, sed mi opinias ke mi preferos chi ties domon. Mia amiko volis doni almenau kafon al sia najbaro, sed li diris ke li ne volas trinki kafon. Tamen li volis persikon. Li tenis tiun en la mano, kaj manghis tiun. SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. 1. The birds have very strong wings on their bodies, but they do not have hands. 2. They will build their nests, and sing about the young birds. 3. Those children were talking to me yesterday about their cat. 4. They said that it likes to catch and eat sparrows. 5. Tomorrow it will hide (itself) behind a tree, and will catch a young sparrow. 6. The children will gather peaches in that-person's garden, and will put them upon a plate. 7. They will shake the whole tree by means of a branch. 8. The sweet fruit above them will fall upon the soft green grass. 9. The children wondered whether the cherries were ripe. 10. They seem almost ripe, and tomorrow the children will pick (gather) them, with the help of their father. 11. It is said (54) that the grain in that-man's field very [much] needs rain. 12. People also think that the flowers will wither, for (because) it did not rain yesterday or today. 13. My careful young friend will carry an umbrella in his hand tomorrow, because he fears the rain. 14. He sees those gray clouds in (on) the sky. 15. He holds the umbrella by its handle. 16. The weathercock is an indicator concerning the weather. 17. One eats meat with a fork, and soup with a spoon. 18. One holds the spoon in the right hand. 19. A knife is sharp, but one does not need a sharp fork. 20. We shall have a very good meal, and also very good coffee. LESSON XV. THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE. 65. The demonstrative adjective related to the demonstrative pronoun "tiu" (56) is "tia", that kind of, that sort of, such: Tia floro estas bela, that kind of a flower is beautiful. Mi shatas tian viandon, I like that sort of meat. Tiaj najbaroj estas agrablaj, such (that kind of) neighbors are pleasant. Mi volas audi tiajn birdojn, I wish to hear such birds. ADVERBS DEFINED AND CLASSIFIED. 66. An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, adjective, another adverb, or phrase. It may express manner, time, degree, negation, etc. Adverbs are either primary, as "now," "almost," or derived, as "glad-ly," "sweet-ly," The Esperanto primary adverbs given in this and in preceding lessons may be classified as follows: (a) Temporal Adverbs (expressing time). baldau = soon. morgau = tomorrow. hierau = yesterday. nun = now. hodiau = today. tuj = immediately. (b) Adverbs of Degree. almenau = at least. preskau = almost. nur = merely. tre = very, much. (c) Adverbs Expressing Other Ideas. addition: ankau = also. emphasis: ech = even. interrogation: chu, (30). affirmation: jes = yes. proximity: chi, (60). negation: ne = not, no, (27). a. An adverb usually precedes, but may also follow, the word or words which it modifies. It must be so placed as to leave no doubt about which of two words or word-groups it is intended to modify. Thus, "mi preskau volis havi tiun" clearly means "I almost wished to have that"; but "mi volis preskau havi tiun" might mean either "I almost wished to have that," or more probably "I wished almost to have that." An example of permissible variation in the position of adverbs is shown in questions to which an affirmative answer is expected. Such questions may be put in the form of a statement, followed by "chu ne" (instead of having "chu" introduce the sentence, with "ne" in its normal position): Li venos, chu ne? He will come, will he not? La vetero estas bela, chu ne? The weather is beautiful, is it not? Vi audis tiun diron, chu ne? You heard that remark, did you not? FORMATION OF OPPOSITES. 67. If the meaning of a word is such that it can have a direct opposite, such opposite may be formed from it by use of the prefix "mal-": malalta = low, short (from "alta", high, tall). malamiko = enemy (from "amiko", friend). maldekstra = left (from "dekstra", right). malhelpi = to hinder (from "helpi", to help). maljuna = aged, old (from "juna", young). malnova = old, not new (from "nova", new). [Footnote: Cf. English "malcontent", "discontented," "maladroit", "clumsy."] VOCABULARY dum = during. povi = to be able. ech = even. preni = to take. gardi = to guard. propono = proposal. helpi = to help, to aid. respondi = to answer. honti = to be ashamed. ruza = sly, cunning. kara = dear. shteli = to steal. kontenta = satisfied. tia = that kind of (65). kuragha = courageous. tuj = immediately. nokto = night. vocho = voice. LA RUZA JUNA VIRO. Ruza juna viro kaj bona maljuna viro iris trans dezerton. Tiu havis nigran chevalon, chi tiu havis blankan chevalon. "Vi gardos niajn chevalojn dum la nokto, chu ne?" diris la juna viro per dolcha vocho al sia amiko, "Char dum la nokto oni ne povos vidi mian nigran chevalon, sed malamikoj povos tuj vidi vian blankan chevalon. Oni povos shteli tian chevalon, char vi estas maljuna kaj malforta, kaj ne povos malhelpi malamikojn." Tia propono ne shajnis agrabla al la maljuna viro. Li ne estis kontenta, tamen li ne volis perdi sian chevalon, char li estis malricha. Li diris al si ke li donos sian blankan chevalon al la juna viro, kaj prenos ties nigran chevalon. Tuj li diris al chi tiu "Sed per via helpo mi ne perdos mian chevalon: mi donos la mian al vi, kaj prenos vian chevalon. La via estas malbela, sed ghi estas almenau nigra; vi donos ghin al mi, chu ne?" "Jes," respondis la ruza juna viro, kaj li donis sian nigran chevalon al tiu, kaj prenis la blankan chevalon. "Nun," diris la maljuna viro, "Vi estas kuragha kaj forta, kaj vi gardos la chevalojn, chu ne? Vi povos malhelpi malamikojn per tiu granda akra tranchilo, kaj oni ne povos shteli vian blankan chevalon." La ruza juna viro ne hontis. Li respondis "Mia kara amiko, mi nun dormos, char oni ne shtelos blankan chevalon. Mi povos vidi tian chevalon dum la nokto, kaj malhelpi malamikojn. Sed tiu chevalo via ("that horse of yours") havas la koloron de la nokto, kaj ech nun oni povas shteli ghin." La malkontenta maljuna viro diris per kolera vocho "Chu vi ne hontas pri tia propono?" Tamen la ruza juna viro tuj komencis dormi, kaj la maljuna viro gardis la chevalojn dum la tuta nokto. SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. (Words to be formed with the prefix "mal-" are quoted.) 1. Does one eat potatoes and meat with a fork or a spoon? 2. One puts soup into the mouth by means of a spoon. 3. One cuts fruit with a knife, and puts the fruit upon a plate. 4. The coffee was "cold", and I was much "dissatisfied". 5. My knife was "dull", nevertheless I almost immediately cut my (the) "left" hand. 6. I was ashamed, but I think that the handle of that knife was very "short". 7. The grass is "wet" today, and I fear that we shall not be able to take a walk, even in that "small" park. 8. I "dislike" to go-walking upon the "hard" streets. 9. The courageous young man and his "aged" friend talked about their "enemies". 10. They wished to be careful about their horses. 11. The young man was very sly, and wished to sleep during the night. 12. He said that one can steal a black horse during the "dark" night. 13. He said that either (au) he or the "old" man would guard the horses. 14. The "old" man answered that he would give to him his [own] white horse. 15. He took that one's black horse. 16. He was ashamed, and was very angry at his "faithless" friend. 17. But he "stayed-awake", and guarded the horses. LESSON XVI. THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE. 68. The demonstrative adverbs of place related to the pronouns "tiu" and "chi tiu" are "tie", there, in (at) that place, and "chi tie", here, in (at) this place: La telero estas tie, the plate is there (in that place). La libroj kushas chi tie, the books lie here (in this place). Mi trovis vin tie kaj lin tie chi, I found you there and him here. Tie la vetero shajnas tre agrabla, there the weather seems very pleasant. 69. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by "tie" or "chi tie", the ending "-n" is added to the adverb (46), forming "tien", thither, there, and "chi tien", hither, here: Li iros tien, he will go there (thither). Mi venis chi tien, I came here (hither). Ni estis tie, kaj venis chi tien, we were there and came here (hither). ACCOMPANIMENT. 70. Accompaniment or association is expressed by the preposition "kun", with, along with: La viro venis kun sia amiko, the man came with his friend. Mi promenos kun vi, I shall go walking with you. La knabo kun tiu viro estas lia frato, the boy with that man is his brother. [Footnote: "Kun" must not be confused with "per" (64), which expresses instrumentality, although per may often be translated by English "with." The English preposition "with" may be said to have three rather clearly defined different meanings. In the linguistic history of this word, the original meaning was "against," still shown in "fight with, strive with, contend with, withstand", etc. (Cf. German "widerstreiten", to strive with, "widerhalten", to resist, etc.) Gradually this word "with" usurped the meaning of the original preposition "mid," expressing association or accompaniment (cf. German "mit", with, which it crowded out of the language except in one unimportant compound). The word "by" was also encroaching upon "mid" from another direction, and so "mid's" successor "with" came to be interchangeable with "by" in expressing instrumentality. Thus, English "with" indicates opposition, accompaniment, or instrumentality, for which three senses Esperanto has the three prepositions "kontrau", "kun", and "per", respectively.] THE ADVERB "FOR". 71. The adverb "for", away, may be used independently, as "Li iris for de mi", he went away from me, but it is more frequently used as a prefix to give a sense of departure, loss or somewhat forcible removal: foriri = to go away, to depart. forkuri = to run away, to escape. forlasi = to leave alone, to abandon, to desert. formanghi = to eat away, to eat up. forpreni = to take away, to remove. fortrinki = to drink away, to drink up. [Footnote: Cf. the prefix "for-" in English "forfend," to keep away, to avert, "forbid," to exclude from, to command against, "forbear," to refrain from, etc.] THE MEANING OF "POVI". 72. The verb "povi", to be able, is used to translate English "can", which is defective, that is, does not occur in all of the forms a verb may have: Mi povas paroli, I am able to talk, I can talk. Mi povis paroli, I was able to talk, I could talk. Mi povos paroli, I shall be able to talk, ------. Mi volas povi paroli, I wish to be able to talk, ------. VOCABULARY el = out of, out. peli = to drive, to chase. chirkau = around, roundabout. posho = pocket. for = away (71). rajdi = to ride. frua = early. rapidi = to hasten. glavo = sword. resti = to remain, to stay. horo = hour. sagha = wise. kun = with (70). tie = there (68). lasi = to leave. voki = to call. MALAMIKOJ EN LA DEZERTO. Juna viro kaj lia sagha patro volis iri trans la dezerton, kun siaj amikoj. La amikoj estis fortaj, kaj la juna viro estis tre kuragha. Ili restis en malgranda urbo dum la nokto, kaj forrajdis kun tiuj amikoj. La patro kaj la filo opiniis ke la amikoj kun ili povos helpi per siaj akraj glavoj. Ili opiniis ke ili povos forpeli la malamikojn. Ech en la dezerto oni trovas malamikojn. Tiaj malamikoj forprenas la monon de bonaj viroj. La juna viro estis kontenta, char li estis kun la amikoj. La maljuna viro estis kontenta char li estis kun sia filo. Baldau la nokto venis. Estis tre malluma tie en la dezerto, kaj ili preskau ne povis vidi. Dum la fruaj horoj de la nokto la patro audis vochojn, kaj preskau tuj li vidis la malamikojn. La ruzaj malbonaj viroj rapidis tien, kaj vokis la maljunan viron. La malkuraghaj amikoj de la patro kaj filo nek restis tie, nek helpis forpeli la malamikojn. Ili tuj forkuris. La malamikoj staris chirkau la patro, kaj forpushis lin de lia chevalo. La filo volis malhelpi ilin, sed li ne povis. Li povis nur resti kun la patro, kaj gardi lin tie kontrau la glavoj de la malamikoj. Baldau la malamikoj komencis forpreni la monon el la poshoj de la sagha maljuna viro. La kolera filo diris per maldolcha ("bitter") vocho "Chu vi ne hontas? Chu vi lasos al ni nek la chevalojn nek nian monon?" Sed la malamikoj respondis "Ne, ni lasos al vi nek la chevalojn nek la monon. Ni ne estas malsaghaj." Post tiu diro ili tuj forrapidis, kaj prenis kun si la chevalojn. SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. 1. The foolish friends of the young man and his aged father did not stay with them. 2. They did not help them with their swords, but ran away at once ("tuj"), and were not ashamed. 3. The old man heard disagreeable voices behind him, and soon he saw the enemy. 4. The enemy called them, and hastened there (69). 5. Those sly bad men took the money out of the pockets of the courageous young man. 6. They stood around him, and also around his father. 7. The father and son could not even guard their horses. 8. The enemy did not leave (to) these their horses, but took both the horses and the money. 9. Soon the enemy rode away, during the late hours of the night. 10. The father and son were angry and dissatisfied. 11. They said "We fear and dislike such men." 12. The father said "By the help of our neighbors we can ("povos") find those bad men, and drive them away, out of the desert." 13. The son replied, "Dear Father, such a proposal seems good, and I will help with my long sharp sword. 14. But we are now in the desert, and the road to the city is long. 15. We cannot ride thither, but we can walk thither. 16. Can you not hasten, with ("per") my help?" 17. The wise old man answered, "Yes, my son, with such help I can walk thither." LESSON XVII. THE DEMONSTRATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB. 73. The demonstrative temporal adverb related to the demonstrative pronoun "tiu" is "tiam", then, at that time: Tiam li rajdos al la urbo, then he will ride to the city. Nun ili estas saghaj, sed tiam ili estis malsaghaj, now they are wise, but at that time they were foolish. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 74. An adjective may have three degrees, "positive", "comparative" and "superlative." English has various ways of forming the comparative and superlative degrees (as by the suffixes "-er, -est," the adverbs "more, most," and irregular methods as in "good, better, best," etc.). Esperanto has only one method, using the adverbs "pli", more, and "plej", most: POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. --------------- ------------------------ -------------------------- bela, beautiful pli bela, more beautiful plej bela, most beautiful bona, good pli bona, better plej bona, best malbona, bad pli malbona, worse plej malbona, worst sagha, wise pli sagha, wiser plej sagha, wisest 75. The preposition "el" is used with words expressing the group or class out of which a superlative is selected and mentioned: Li estas la plej juna el tiuj, he is the youngest of (out of) those. Vi estas la plej felicha el ni, you are the happiest of us. Tiu estis la plej ruza el la viroj, that one was the craftiest of the men. MANNER AND CHARACTERISTIC. 76. The actions or feelings which accompany an act or state, or the characteristic which permanently accompanies a person or thing, may be expressed by a substantive with the preposition "kun": Li prenis ghin kun la plej granda zorgo, he took it with the greatest care. Mi audis lin kun intereso kaj plezuro, I heard him with interest and pleasure. Shi estas virino kun bona gusto, she is a woman with (of) good taste. Mi havas chevalon kun forta korpo, I have a horse with a strong body. [Footnote: Sometimes the manner of an action may be expressed by the instrument of it, expressed by the preposition "per" with a substantive modified by an adjective: "Li kantis per dolcha vocho", he sang with (by means of) a sweet voice. "Vi pushis min per forta mano", you pushed me with a strong hand.] "DIRI", "PAROLI" AND "RAKONTI". 77. The verbs "diri", to say, "paroli", to talk, to speak, and "rakonti", to relate, having in common the general idea of speech or expression, must not be confused in use: Mi diris al vi ke pluvas, I said to (told) you that it was raining. Mi diris ghin al vi, I said it to you (I told you). Mi parolis al vi pri ghi, I talked (spoke) to you about it. Mi rakontis ghin al vi, I related (told) it to you. VOCABULARY ami = to love. pli = more (74). ekster = outside (of). plumo = pen. Frederiko = Frederick. rakonti = to relate (77). gratuli = to congratulate. regho = king. intereso = interest. servisto = servant. letero = letter. skribi = to write. plej = most (74). tiam = then (73). plezuro = pleasure. zorgo = care. FREDERIKO GRANDA KAJ LA JUNA SERVISTO. Hierau mi legis interesan libron pri Frederiko Granda ("the Great"). En ghi oni rakontas ke la regho kun plezuro legis au skribis per sia plumo, dum malfruaj horoj de la nokto. Agrabla juna knabo, la plej juna el la servistoj, tiam restis ekster la pordo. Char la regho legis plej interesan novan libron, li ne opiniis ke la horo estas malfrua. Li vokis sian malgrandan serviston, sed la knabo, nek venis nek respondis. La regho iris tien, kaj trovis la knabon ekster la pordo. Li vidis ke la knabo dormas sur malalta segho. Tiam Frederiko Granda ne estis kolera, sed hontis char li vokis la infanon. La regho Frederiko vidis leteron en la posho de la knabo. Tuj li prenis la leteron el lia posho, kaj rigardis ghin. Ghi estis letero al la servisto, de lia patrino. Shi ne estis richa virino, shi shajnis esti tre malricha. En chi tiu letero la patrino diris per la plumo ke shi amas la filon. Shi dankis lin char li skribis al shi longan leteron. Shi ankau dankis lin char li donis al shi monon. La regho volis esti tre bona al tia filo. Kun la plej granda zorgo li metis monon el sia posho kun la letero kaj tiam lasis la leteron en ties posho. Tiam li formarshis al sia chambro, kaj vokis la malgrandan serviston. La knabo tuj audis, kaj rapidis tra la pordo. Li kuris trans la chambron, kaj staris antau la regho. "Chu vi dormis?" diris Frederiko Granda. "Jes, mi timas ke mi preskau dormis," respondis la knabo, "kaj mi tre hontas." Tiam li metis la manon en la poshon, kaj trovis la monon. Li shajnis pli malfelicha kaj diris kun granda timo "Malamiko metis chi tiun monon en mian poshon! Oni opinios ke mi shtelis ghin! Oni malamos min, kaj forpelos min!" Frederiko respondis, "Ne, mi donis ghin al vi, char mi amas bonajn knabojn. Mi gratulas vian patrinon, char shi havas tian filon." SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. 1. An interesting story is related (54) about Frederick the Great. 2. His youngest servant stayed outside of the door. 3. The king called him, and he hastened thither and stood before him. 4. Yesterday he did not hear the king. 5. The king called him, but he did not answer. 6. The king thought that the boy had gone away with the older servants, and he was angry. 7. He left his book on the table, and went to the door. 8. Then he saw that the little boy was sleeping there. 9. He looked at him with greater interest, and saw a letter in his pocket. 10. The letter was from the boy's mother. 11. He had written a letter to her, with his pen, and had given (to) her money, because she was poor. 12. He wrote longer letters with pleasure, because he was a most faithful son. 13. The king congratulated the mother of the boy, concerning such a son. 14. (The) king Frederick wished to be kinder ("pli bona") to the boy. 15. He placed his book upon the table, near his sword, and talked to the little servant. 16. Then the older servants came, and stood around the king. 17. They walked with great care, and the younger servant did not hear them. 18. They loved the little boy, and wished to help him. LESSON XVIII. THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON. 78. The demonstrative adverb of motive or reason, related to the demonstrative pronoun "tiu", is "tial", therefore, for that reason, so: Tial la servisto foriris, therefore the servant went away. Tial mi gratulis lin, for that reason I congratulated him. Tial oni forpelis lin, so they drove him away. DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 79. Adverbs may be derived from roots whose meaning permits, by addition of the adverb-ending "-e", as "feliche", happily, "kolere", angrily. The comparison of adverbs is similar to that of adjectives: POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. ------------- ---------------------- ----------------------- saghe, wisely pli saghe, more wisely plej saghe, most wisely bone, well pli bone, better plej bone, best malbone, badly pli malbone, worse plej malbone, worst ruze, slyly pli ruze, more slyly plej ruze, most slyly "MALPLI" AND "MALPLEJ". 80. The opposites (67) of "pli" and "plej" are "malpli", less, and "malplej", least. Their use is similar to that of "pli" and "plej". (These adverbs may also modify verbs): Li estas malpli kuragha, he is less courageous. Tiuj estis malplej akraj, those were least sharp. La vento blovis malpli forte, the wind blew less strongly. Li skribis malplej zorge, he wrote least carefully. Mi malpli timas ilin, I fear them less. Vi malplej bezonos helpon, you will need help least. COMPARISON OF WORDS EXPRESSING QUANTITY. 81. Since in their precise sense the words "pli", "malpli", "plej", "malplej", express degree, a quantitative meaning is given by "multe", "much", in the desired degree of comparison: multe, much pli multe, more (in amount) plej multe, most malpli multe, less " malplej multe, least malmulte, little pli malmulte, less " plej malmulte, least COMPARISONS CONTAINING "OL". 82. In a comparison made by the use of "pli" or "malpli", the case used after "ol", than, must indicate clearly the sense intended: Mi amas ilin pli multe ol shin, I love them more than (I love) her. Mi amas ilin pli multe ol shi, I love them more than she (loves them). Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabo, you helped the man less than the boy (helped him). Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabon, you helped the man less than (you helped) the boy. CAUSAL CLAUSES. 83. A clause giving a cause or reason is introduced by "char", because, for, or by the combination "tial ke", for this reason that, because, for: Mi venis frue, char mi volis vidi vin, I came early, for I wished to see you. La floroj velkis tial, ke ne pluvis, the flowers wilted for this reason, that it did not rain. VOCABULARY anstatau = instead of. multa = much (multaj, many). aprilo = April. ofta = frequent (ofte, often). augusto = August. ol = than (82). jaro = year. printempo = spring (season). junio = June. tago = day. julio = July. sezono = season. majo = May. somero = summer. marto = March. tial = therefore (78). monato = month. vintro = winter. PRI LA SEZONOJ. La vintro estas la malplej agrabla sezono el la tuta jaro. Neghas tre multe, kaj tial oni nur malofte promenas, char la stratoj estas tro malsekaj. Oni marshas kun granda zorgo, kaj malrapide ("slowly"), tial ke oni ne volas fali kaj preskau rompi la kolon. Oni zorge gardas sin tiam kontrau la malvarmaj nordaj ventoj. La manojn oni metas en la poshojn, sed la vizaghon oni ne povas bone gardi. Mi ne shatas resti ekster la domo dum tia vetero. Mi multe preferas sidi en varma luma chambro, kaj skribi leterojn per bona plumo. La monatoj de la printempo estas marto, aprilo kaj majo. La bela printempo shajnas pli agrabla ol la vintro. Ghiaj tagoj estas pli longaj kaj pli varmaj, ghiaj ventoj blovas malpli forte. En chi tiu sezono la kampoj kaj arboj frue komencas montri plej belajn kolorojn. La birdoj konstruas siajn nestojn, kaj dolche kantas. Oni povas promeni sur la mola herbo, anstatau sur malsekaj malagrablaj stratoj. Pluvas pli multe en aprilo, tamen post la pluvo la herbo shajnas pli verda, kaj la nuboj baldau forflugas de la blua chielo. Dum majo oni trovas violojn, kaj en junio oni vidas tre multajn rozojn. Sed la plej agrabla el la sezonoj estas la somero. Anstatau malvarmaj ventoj la somero havas la plej belan veteron, kun suda au okcidenta ventoj. La longaj tagoj estas varmaj, sed la noktoj estas tute agrablaj. Tiam oni havas pli bonajn fruktojn ol dum la printempo. La monatoj de la somero estas junio, julio kaj augusto. Mi plej shatas junion. Chu vi shatas ghin pli multe ol mi? Chu vi shatas auguston pli multe ol julion? SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. 1. I read a most interesting book about Frederick the Great. 2. It relates that he often stayed-awake and read with great interest during the later hours of the night. 3. His youngest servant was a small boy. 4. The king loved this boy more than [he loved] the older servants. 5. The winter is a less pleasant season than the spring, but the summer is more pleasant than that [season]. 6. During March the east winds blow most strongly, and shake the trees very much. 7. In April one needs his umbrella, for (the reason that) there are often clouds in the sky and it rains a great deal (very much). 8. The streets are very wet, but the water does not seem to wash them. 9. In May one begins to find sweet violets, and the birds in the trees above our heads sing very sweetly. 10. In June the most beautiful roses are seen (54). 11. July and August are the warmest months of the whole year. 12. The days are longer than the nights, and the weathercock shows west and south winds, instead of those disagreeable north and east winds. 13. One stays outside [of] the house then with greater pleasure, and goes walking in the parks. 14. I think that I like the summer better than you [do]. 15. Therefore I praise the summer more than you [do]. 16. However, I praise you more than [I praise] your younger brother. 17. He is less wise than you. LESSON XIX. "JU" AND "DES" IN COMPARISONS. 84. In clauses expressing a comparison between two objects, acts or states, the adverbial use of English "the ... the ..." (meaning "by how much ... by that much ...") is rendered by the adverbs "ju" and "des", respectively: Ju pli bona li estas, des pli felicha li estos, the better he is, the happier he will be. Ju pli ofte mi rigardas, des pli mi volas rigardi, the oftener I look, the more I wish to look. Ju pli bele la luno brilas, des pli oni shatas la nokton, the more beautifully the moon shines, the more one likes the night. Ju malpli pluvas, des pli la floroj velkas, the less it rains, the more the flowers wither. Ju malpli multe vi helpas, des malpli multe mi laudos vin, the less you help, the less I shall praise you. Char vi helpis, mi des pli multe laudos vin, because you helped, I shall praise you the (that much) more. [Footnote: Cf. Shakespeare, As You Like It, V, II, 49, "By so much the more shall I tomorrow be at the height of heart-heaviness, by how much I shall think my brother happy in having what he wishes for."] THE PREPOSITION "INTER". 85. In English, the preposition "between" is used in reference to two persons or things, and "among" in reference to three or more. As the difference in meaning is not essential, Esperanto has but the one preposition inter to express both "between" and "among": Li sidas inter vi kaj mi, he is sitting between you and me. Li sidas inter siaj amikoj, he is sitting among his friends. La monato majo estas inter aprilo kaj junio, the month of May is between April and June. Inter tiuj libroj estas tre interesa libro, among those books there is a very interesting book. THE PREPOSITION "PRO". 86. Cause or reason may be expressed not only by an adverb (78) or a clause (83), but also by use of the preposition "pro", because of, on account of, for the sake of, for. It directs the thought away from the complement toward the action, feeling or state caused by it, or done in its interest or behalf: La floroj velkas pro la seka vetero, the flowers wilt because of the dry weather. Mi skribis la leteron pro vi, I wrote the letter for you (for your sake). Pro tiuj nuboj mi timas ke pluvos, on account of those clouds I fear that it will rain. Oni shatas cherizojn pro la dolcha gusto, people like cherries because of the sweet taste. PREPOSITIONS WITH ADVERBS AND OTHER PREPOSITIONS. 87. Prepositions may be used with adverbs or with prepositional phrases when the meaning permits: La kato kuris el sub la tablo, the cat ran out-from under the table. Li venos el tie, he will come out of there. De nun li estos zorga, from now he will be careful. Li staris dekstre de la vojo, he stood on the right of the road. Mi iros for de chi tie, I shall go away from here. VOCABULARY autuno = autumn, fall. negho = snow. decembro = December. novembro = November. des = (see 84). nuda = bare, naked. februaro = February. oktobro = October. glacio = ice. pro = because of (86). inter = between, among (85). rikolti = to harvest. januaro = January. rivero = river. ju = (see 84). septembro = September. kovri = to cover. tero = ground, earth. LA AUTUNO KAJ LA VINTRO. La sezonoj de la jaro estas la vintro, la printempo, la somero, kaj la autuno. La autuno estas inter la somero kaj la vintro. Ghiaj monatoj estas septembro, oktobro kaj novembro. En septembro oni povas kolekti maturajn fruktojn. Tiam ankau oni rikoltas la flavan grenon de la kampoj. Dum chi tiu monato kaj dum oktobro la folioj sur la branchoj komencas esti rughaj kaj flavaj, anstatau verdaj. La herbo velkas, kaj bruna tapisho shajnas kovri la teron. Baldau la folioj falas al la tero, kaj en novembro la arboj estas tute nudaj. Pli au malpli frue neghas. La glacio ofte kovras la akvon en la riveroj, kaj restas sur la stratoj kaj la vojoj. La mola blanka negho kovras la teron, kaj kushas sur la branchoj de la arboj. Tiam, pro la fortaj ventoj, ghi falas de la branchoj al la tero. La birdoj frue lasas tian veteron, kaj flugas de chi tie al pli sudaj kampoj kaj arboj. Ili ne povas resti, pro la malvarmaj tagoj kaj noktoj. Ili malshatas la neghon kaj la glacion pli multe ol ni. Ju pli multe neghas; des pli malofte ni volas promeni. Ni preferas resti en la domo, anstatau ekster ghi. Ju pli ni rigardas la nudajn branchojn de la arboj, des pli malagrabla shajnas la vintro. Tamen la junaj infanoj tre shatas tian veteron, kaj ju pli neghas, kaj ju pli forte la norda vento blovas, des malpli ili estas kontentaj en la domo. Ili volas kuri sur la negho, chirkau la arboj kaj inter ili, kun siaj junaj amikoj. Ili povas bone amuzi sin per la negho. La monatoj de la vintro estas decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Ghi estas la plej malvarma sezono. SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. 1. September, October and November are the months of autumn. 2. In these months, people harvest the yellow grain and gather various fruits. 3. The leaves on the trees around us begin to have red and yellow colors. 4. They begin to fall from the branches and lie upon the ground. 5. The more strongly the cold north wind blows through the branches, the sooner the leaves fall from there. 6. They lie under the bare trees, with the brown grass. 7. The sooner it snows, the sooner the ground will seem to have a white carpet. 8. The snow will completely ("tute") cover the grass during the months of the winter. 9. These months are December, January and February. 10. From that time ("de tiam") the ice and snow will cover the roads, and altogether ("tute") hide them. 11. There will often be ice on the water of the river. 12. We like this season of the year more than March, April and May. 13. We like it even more than the summer. 14. The months of the latter (62) are June, July and August. 15. The summer is the warmest season of the entire year. 16. Therefore we often say that the summer is the pleasantest season. 17. Because of its many pleasures, the summer is dear to me. 18. It is between the spring and the autumn. LESSON XX. THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE. 88. The demonstrative adverb of manner and degree, related to the demonstrative pronoun "tiu", is "tiel", in that (this) manner, in such a way, thus, so. Like English "thus," "so," "tiel" may modify adjectives and other adverbs, by indicating degree: Chu oni tiel helpas amikon? Does one help a friend in that (this) way? Mi ghin skribis tiel, I wrote it thus (in such a way). La vetero estas tiel bela, the weather is so beautiful. Tiel mallonge li parolis, thus briefly he spoke. Mi trovis tiel belan floron, I found such a beautiful flower. Li prenis tiel multe, he took that much (so much). PREPOSITIONS EXPRESSING TIME-RELATIONS. 89. The relations which prepositions express may be of various kinds. As in English, a certain number of prepositio